UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT  LOS  ANGELES 


THE 

Teaching  of  Geogkaphy 


BY 

WILLIAM  J.  SUTHERLAND,  M.  A, 

PRESIDENT  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL,   PLATTEVILLE,  WISCONSIN 


SCOTT,  FORESMAN  AND  COMPANY 
CHICAGO         ATLANTIC         NEY  YORK 


Copyright  1009 

BY 

SCOTT,  FORESMAN  AND   COMPANY 

2  54 


V) 


s 


PREFACE. 

To  all  students  of  geography  it  is  a  lamentable 
fact  that  there  is  even  yet  a  lack  of  respect  for 
this  branch  of  science.     Though  we  have  a  "new 
geography"  rich  and  vital  in  its  possibilities  to 
^       contribute  to  twentieth  century  education,  vet  all 
l       too  many  teachers  are  oblivious  of  the  significance 
^i*       and  value  of  the  subject  and,  in  the  schoolroom, 
are  rattling  the  dry  bones  of  formal   statement 
and  definition.     Their  view  of  the  subject,   and 
their  method  of  teaching  it,  restricts  its  value  and 
>|.       curtails  the  interest  which  it  ought  to  enlist  from 
pupils.     The  object  of  this  volume  is,  first  of  all, 
to  present   and  instill   in  the  minds   of  teachers 
the  true  nature  of  modern  geography.    Therefore 
^      Part   I   is  devoted  to  the  "Nature  and  Scope  of 
5?       Geography."     It  is  hoped  that  its  careful  study 
^       will   result   in   establishing  a   correct   and   broad 
view  of  a   subject  whose  content  is  rich  in  edu- 
cative possibilities. 

Part  11  of  the  volume  is  devoted  to  "Methods 
of  Teaching  Geography."  It  is  true  that  a  better 
conception  of  the  subject  would,  in  itself,  correct, 
to  considerable  extent,  the  old  and  irrational 
methods  of  presentation.  And  yet,  the  more  ex- 
plicit suggestions  and  directions  which  are  given 


I 


o 


4  PKEFACE 

in  Part  II,  may  be  of  use  to  teachers  generally  in 
teaching'  children  the  subject-matter.  It  may  be 
quite  proper  to  state  that  the  general  view  as 
here  held,  together  with  the  discussion  of  method, 
and  the  "Practical  Suggestions,"  are  the  direct 
outgrowth  of  the  author's  years  of  experience  in 
teaching  the  subject  to  children  and  to  prospec- 
tive and  active  teachers.  The  method  suggested 
is  thought  to  be  educationally  sound  in  the  light 
of  present  day  educational  progress. 

Part  III  is  devoted  to  "Practical  Suggestions." 
Instruction  in  geography  should  be  concrete  and 
real.  Through  excursions,  illustrative  materials, 
pictures  and  current  literature,  the  vitalizing  con- 
tact with  life  may  be  secured.  Hence  suggestions 
looking  to  this  end  are  given.  The  bibliographies 
at  the  end  of  the  various  chapters  will  indicate 
the  sources  from  which  the  author  has  secured 
inspiration  and  help. 

The  author  is  especially  indebted  to  Professor 
11.  L.  Roberts  of  the  Department  of  Geography 
and  Geology,  State  Normal  School,  Cape  Girar- 
deau, Missouri,  for  reading  and  criticising  the 
manuscript;  and  to  Professor  AY.  AY.  Martin,  head 
of  the  Training  Department  of  the  same  institu- 
tion, for  bints  and  suggestions. 

Acknowledgement  for  suggestions  is  made  to 
Principal  L.  L.  Rverly  of  the  Teachers'  Training 
School  of  St.  Paul;  to  Professor  Thomas  Gentle 
of  the  Training  Department,  State  Normal 
School,  Plattoville,  Wisconsin,  for  valuable  sug- 
gestions  and    for  testing  materials  and  methods 


PREFACE  5 

in  actual  class  teaching;  and  to  Professor  C.  M. 
Sanford,  also  of  the  State  Normal  School,  Platte- 
ville,  Wisconsin,  for  valuable  assistance. 

Hoping  that  this  volume  will  meet  the  needs 
of  teachers  anxious  to  do  better  work  in  a  very 
rich  and  important  subject  of  elementary  educa- 
tion, it  is  respectfully  submitted. 

William  J.  Sutherland. 

Platteville,  Wisconsin,  Sept.  25,  1909. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Preface   3 

PART   ONE:     THE   NATURE  AND   SCOPE   OF 
GEOGRAPHY 

CHAPTER   I 

Introduction  :     The  Nature  of  Geography 17 

General  attitude  toward  the  subject. 

"What  a  comprehensive  treatment  must  recognize. 

Physiographic    processes   as   explaining   conditions   of   the 

earth  's  surface. 
Geography  includes  a  study  of  the  earth's  surface  in  its 

present  condition. 
Physiographic  processes  and  features  as  conditioning  the 

life  of  the  earth. 
Man's  adjustment  to  favorable  earth  conditions,  and  his 

transformation  of  unfavorable. 
Social  side  of  geography. 

CHAPTER    II 

Geographic    Conditions    and    Effects,    or    Controls    and 

Responses   27 

Importance   of   physical   conditions   and   their   relationship 

to   life. 
The  idea  of  geographic  controls  and  responses. 
Classification  and  brief  discussion  of  controls. 

(a)  Temperature. 

(b)  Moisture. 

(c)  Soils  and  rocks. 

(d)  The  atmosphere. 

(e)  ( Irganie  controls. 

(f  )     Topographic  and  barrier  controls. 
(g)     Human   and    social   controls. 
Summary. 

7 


8 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 


chapter  irr 

Phases  of  Geographical  Study 


Page 
.     38 


The  Phases  stated. 
Observational  geography. 

(a)  Aim  of. 

(b)  Importance  of  basal  ideas. 

(e)     Nature    study    and    observational    geography    not 
differentiated. 

(d)     Teachers   should   cultivate   an  interest  in  observa- 
tional geography. 
Representative  geography. 

(a)  The    character    of     representative     geography:     a 

form  of  expression. 

(b)  Educative  value  of  expression. 
J  lescriptive  geography. 

(a)  A    medium    through    which    the    child    can    secure 

earth  knowledge  beyond   the   circle  of  observed 
phenomena. 

(b)  Descriptive  geography  finds  a   place  in   the   inter- 

mediate  grades. 

(c)  Character    of    the    knowledge    gained    through    de- 

scriptive   geography.      Notion    of   the    world    as 
a  whole  reached  inductively. 
Rational  geography. 

(a)  The  causal  (lenient  introduced. 

(b)  Importance  of  the  causal  or  rational  element. 
The  social   phase  of  geography. 

(a;     What  knowledge  is  of  most  worth  to  the  child.' 
(b)     The  social   phase  dominant  in  commercial  am!  eco- 
nomic geography. 


The 


CHAPTER   IV 

{elation  ok  (Jeogkaphy  to  the  Sciences..... 

he  relation  of  geography^to  geology. 

he  relation  of  geography  to  meteorology. 

he  relation  of  geography  to  physical  sciences. 

he  relation  of  geography  to  biological  sciences. 

he  relation  of  geography  to  agriculture. 


TABLE    Oh'   COS  TENTH 


9 
Page 


All  science  related  to  geography. 

.Much  science  rightfully  belongs  to  geography;  to  eliminate 
it  impoverishes  the  subject. 

CHAPTER   V 

Tiik  Relation  of  Geography  to  History 


G3 


Geography  the  basis  of  history. 

The  ''old''  geography  ignored  geographic  influence. 

Illustrations  of  geographic  influence  in  history. 

(a)  Physiography  and  industrial  history  in  New    Eng- 

land. 

(b)  A  case  of  gcograr)hie  influence  in  Illinois. 

CHAPTER  VI 

The  Aims  of  Geographical  Study 80 

The  aims  as  defined  by  leading  educators. 

The  aims  of  the  ''  Paris  Commercial  Geography  Society.'' 

Various  aims  discussed. 

Adjustment  to  environment  as  an  aim. 

(a)  Place   adjustment.      Distribution   of   population. 

(b)  Economic  adjustment. 

(c)  Political   or  social  adjustment. 
Introductory  and  correlative  aims. 
The  practical    value  aims. 

The  culture  value  aims. 


<  HAPTER  VII 


II  L'MAN    AND   SOCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

The  human  side  of  geography. 

(a)  The  true  meaning  of   human   geography. 

(b)  Illustrations  of. 

The  social  side  of  geography. 

(a)  Geography  and  social  efficiency. 

(b)  The  usefulness  of  geographical  materials. 

(c)  Geography  involves  principles  of  economies. 

(d)  Study    of   geography    contributes   to   rational   citi- 

zenship. 
(c)     Study  of  geography  and  nature  contributes  to  the 
development   of  a  humane  sp'rit. 


95 


10  TABLE   OF   CONTEXTS 


CHAPTER  vi  rr 

Page 
Geography  and  Like 109 

Life  dependent  upon  environment. 

Man  a  response  to  physiographic  conditions. 

(a)  Man  in  tropical  regions. 

(b)  Man   in  arctic  regions. 

(c)  Man  in  temperate  regions. 

Life  a  process  of  establishing  an  equilibrium  with  environ- 
ment. 
Re-creation  of  environment  an  evidence  of  civilization. 
Restricted  and  unrestricted  habitable  areas. 
Geography  and  history  in   England. 
Geography  and  history  in  Illinois. 
Many  ways  in  which  geography  functions  in  life. 


PART    TWO:     THE   TEACHING    OF    GEOGRAPHY 

CHAPTER   IX 
The    Teacher  \s    Preparation 125 

Diversified    relationships  of  geography   require  a  breadth 

of  view  in  the  teacher's  equipment. 
Tests   of   geographical    material.      Danger   of   irrelevancy. 
Knowledge  of  principles  of  first  importance. 
Brief  discussion  of  the  physiographic  processes  and  their 
effects, 
(a)     Ibastrophism  and  the  part  it  plays  in  determining 

the   contour  and   relief  of  land   masses. 
(\>)     Vulcanisui  and  its  effects. 
(<■)     Gradation  and   the  cycle. 
General    notions    the   best   test    of   a   teacher's  intellectual 

equipment. 
Ability  to  interpret  local  environment  essential. 
The    teacher's    preparation    must    include   a   knowledge   of 
books,  maps,  and  illustrative  materials  and  their  uses. 
The  te;irher  \s   preparation   should  include  an  appreciation 
of  ihe   value  of  geography  to  society  and  the  ability 
t « i    make   useful    applications. 


TABLE   OF   CONTEXTS  11 


CHAPTER  X 

Page 
Better   Method  in  Geography 137 

General  method  determined  by: 

(a)  The  nature  of  the  subject. 

(b)  The  needs  of  the  child. 

Suggested  lines  of  improvement  in  teaching  geography. 
The  empirical  method  condemned. 

Subject-matter  should  be  presented  in  the  form  of  perti- 
nent problems. 
An  illustrative  lesson. 


CHAPTER  XI 

Ax   I xductive  Lesson Mr> 

The  theory: 

Organization  of  the  subject-matter  by  the  teacher. 

(a)  Selection  of  the  principle  to  be  taught. 

(b)  Assemblage  of  well-chosen  data   for  bringing  out 

the  principle. 

(c)  Selection  of  a  problem  for  the  pupil. 

(d)  The   choice   of   good    preparatory   experiences   for 

adjusting  pupil  to  problem. 
Realization  of  the  plan  of  the  lesson. 

(a)  .Making  the   preparatory  step. 

(b)  Stating  the  problem. 

(c)  The  analysis  of  the  first  datum. 

(d)  The  comparison  of  the  data  analyzed. 

(e)  The  statement  of  the  result  of  the  comparison. 
The  application: 

Explanatory  statement. 

The  working  plan  of  the  lesson  on  the  "Cause  for  the  lo- 
cation of  cities. ' ' 
Some  advantages  of  such  a  lesson  over  the  traditional  les- 
son. 
The  deductive  phase  of  this  lesson. 


12 


TABLE   OF   COy TENTS 


CHAPTER   XII 

Page 
A  Deductive  Development  Lesson 155 

Steps. 

(a)  The  problem  stated. 

(b)  Exercise  to  secure  data. 
(<•)  Review  to  recall  principles, 

(d)  Making  the  inferences. 

(e)  Verifying  the  inferences. 


CHAPTER  XIII 


Regional  Geography 


160 


A  proper  unit  of  study  assists  in  organization  of  mate- 
rials. 

Advantages  of  physiographic  region  as  the  unit  for  areal 
geography. 

Regional  study  correlates  descriptive,  causal,  political, 
commercial  and  social  phases  into  a  systematic  whole. 

Summary  of  advantages  vf  regional  treatment. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

Generalization   and  Organization   of  Geographical  Mate- 
rials        hit! 

The  causal  element-. 

Need   of  organization  in  teaching  geography. 

The  rationri]  or  causal  (dement  the  organizing  principle. 

Cnorga  nized  materials  of  little  value  and  easily  Inst. 

CHAPTER    XV 


Tin:    Csk  ok  Text   I'.-kik.- 


172 


An   undesirable  use  of  the  text. 

The   importance  of  good  assignments. 

What    can    lie  secured   through  a    wise  use  of  the  text   bonk. 

S  iggi  -dons    relative   to   assignments    from    text    books. 

memorizing    often    the    result    of   poorly   assigned 
ti  xi   i  i     :.    lesson*. 
Right   attitude  of  teacher  toward  the  text  book. 


TABLE   OF   COX  TENTS  13 

PAKT  TI1KKK:      PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS 

CHAPTER  XVI 

Page 
The  Value  of  Magazine  Articles  and  Government  Publi- 
cations in  Teaching  Geography 183 

Why  magazine  articles  and  official  reports  are  valuable. 

(a)  They  supplement  brief  text  book. 

(b)  They  are  reliable  and  up  to  date, 
(e)     They  are  usually  well  illustrated. 

(d)     They  emphasize  the  social  side  of  geography. 
Summary. 

CHAPTER  XVII 
The  Value  of  Pictures  in  Teaching  Geography 193 

Why  pictures  are  valuable. 

(a)  They   constitute  an  economic   medium   for  convey- 

ance   of    ideas. 

(b)  They  furnish  unity  of  impression. 

(c)  They  are  accurate. 

(d)  They  are  attractive  and  stimulate  interest. 
Suggestions  as  to  tise  of  pictures. 

(a)  Make  good  use  of  the  pictures  in  the  text  book. 

(b)  Illustrations   of  the  use  of  text-book  pictures. 

(c)  How  to  use  stereoscopic  views. 

(d)  The  value  of  the  stereopticon. 

(  IIAI'TKK   XVIII 
The  Value  vv  Illustrative  Materials  and  Field  Work...    HO- 

The  School    .Museum. 

(a)     Directions   for  building. 

{},)     Suggestive   materials. 
The   Industrial    Excursion. 

(a)     The  value  of. 

I't     Suggestions   relating  to   excursions. 
Physiographic   Field  Work. 

(a)  The  importance  of. 

(b)  Suggested  field  studies. 


14  TABLE   OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   XIX 

Page 

Suggestions  on  Weather  Study 217 

Suggested  helps. 

Some  simple  apparatus  and  directions  for  making. 

Practical  exercises. 

(a)  With  the  helior. 

(b)  To  show  atmospheric  pressure. 

(<•)     To  show  convection  currents  in  air  and  water. 
Suggestions  on  the  study  of  cyclonic  storms. 

(a)  Convection  currents. 

(b)  Lows. 

(c)  The  storm  center. 

(d)  The  shifting  of  the  winds. 
Exercises  on  the  daily  weather  map. 

Exercises  to  show  that  air  absorbs  and  deposits  moisture. 
Exercises  to  show  forms  of  heat  energy. 
Suggestions  on : 

(a)  Wind  velocities. 

(b)  State  of  sky. 

(c)  Weather  record. 


CHAPTER   XX 

Maps  and  Models  and  Theik  Uses 235 

General   discussion  of  maps. 

Characteristics  of  good  maps. 

Kinds  of  maps. 

Map   drawing. 

Suggested  map  exercises  based  upon: 

(a)     United  states  Geological  Survey  maps. 

(\>)     On   standard  atlases. 

(c)     On  outline  maps. 
The  use  of  graphs. 
Models,  and  how  to  make  them. 

(a J     1'apcr   pulp  models. 

i  h)     Suit   and   Hour. 

(<■)     Sand    models. 

(<\)     Plasticine  models. 

(<•)     <  Talk  and  pencil   models. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS  15 

CHAPTER    XXI 

Page 

Suggestions  on  the  Study  ok  Soils :i61 

The  origin  of  soils. 

Local  soils  characterized  by  underlying  rocks. 

Law  that  controls  deposition  of  sediments. 

The  Blue  Crass  region. 

Transported  soils. 

(a)  Alluvial. 

(b)  Glacial  drift. 

(c)  Loess. 

The  .Mississippi  delta. 

The  prairie  plains. 

The  loess  of  Mississippi. 

Lava  soils. 

Elements  of  soil  fertility. 

Soils  likely  to  be  poor  in: 

(a)  Nitrogen. 

(b)  Phosphorus. 

(c)  Potassium. 
Methods  of  restoring. 

Suggestions  for  simple  out-door  study. 

CHAPTER   XXI I 

Suggestions  Relative  to  Placing   Emphasis  in   Teaching 

Geography  274 

Emphasis  upon   definite  statements. 

(a)  Pronunciation    and    spelling. 

(b)  Definitions,  as   in   mathematical  geography. 
(e)      General  directions  and   locations. 

(d)  Statements  of  physiographic  and  economic  prin- 

ciples, facts,  and  laws. 

(e)  Statistical    units   to   serve   as  keys. 
Emphasis  upon  the  rational  phase  of  geography. 

APPENDIX 

Bibliography ,   291 

Of  the  pedagogy  of  geography. 

Of  subject-matter. 

A  small  but    valuable  library   for  a  country  school. 

Suggested  map  equipment    for  a   country  school. 

Suggested  equipment    for  a  village  or  grammar  school. 

Information  relating  to  maps,  globes,  charts,  etc. 


PAHT   I. 

CHAPTER  I. 

INTRODUCTION  :   THE    XaTURE    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 

TOPICS   TO   RE   CONSIDERED. 

The  tendency  of  modern  education;   the  nature  of  geography;  its 

fitness   to   contribute  to   present   day   needs. 
The    old    conception    of    geography;    the    view    of    geographers    of 

today;    the  relationships  of  the  subject. 
What    a    comprehensive    treatment    must    take    into    account;    the 

physiographic  processes;   the  value  of  facts;  the  higher  value 

of  relationships. 
Geography  deals  with  relations;   how  man  adjusts  himself  to  the 

earth;    conditions   under   winch    he    succeeds    best;    earth   and 

man. 

The  tendency  of  modern  education  is  to  lessen 
the  gap  that  lias  long  existed  between  school  and 
lite.  To  accomplish  this  aim  materials  of  in- 
struction are  receiving  careful  attention,  and 
emphasis  is  placed  on  those  subjects  or  phases 
of  school  work  which  give  promise  of  useful 
expression  in  the  life1  of  today.  The  hygiene  of  the 
country  school  should  convince  the  pupil  of  the 
fact  that  the  thorough  cleansing  of  a  wound  may 
prevent  blood-poisoning,  and  always  tends  toward 

17 


18         THE    TEACHING    OE    GEOGRAPHY 

rapid  healing.  The  study  of  elementary  chemistry 
should  inform  pupils  of  the  danger  of  typhoid 
fever  that  attends  the  use  of  contaminated  drink- 
ing water,  and  the  instruction  should  put  them  in 
possession  of  a  few  simple  tests  for  detecting  its 
impurities.  Geography  should  make  farmer  boys 
realize  the  unwisdom  of  cultivating  side-hill  slopes 
as  surface  erosion  will  soon  steal  from  the  field 
the  choicest  part  of  the  soil.  Civilization  is  be- 
coming more  and  more  complex,  and  this  com- 
plexity multiplies  the  adjustments  of  the  efficient 
citizen.  Life  is  too  strenuous  and  competition 
too  strong  to  insure  success  to  him  who  would 
learn  in  the  school  of  life,  or  to  him  whose  school 
training  has  ignored  the  "new  duties  which  new 
occasions  teach." 

This  new  educational  situation  has  invited 
new  subjects  of  study,  eliminated  parts  of  old 
subjects,  while  others,  time-honored  and  familiar, 
seem  to  have  been  transformed  and  enriched 
many  fold  through  a  better  understanding  of 
their  ability  to  contribute  to  present-day  needs. 
Viewed  in  this  light,  the  subject  of  discussion  has 
proved  its  worth,  established  its  claim  to  a  prom- 
inent place  in  the  curriculum  of  popular  educa- 
tion and  won  the  significant  title  of  the  "new 
geography." 

At  the  outset  a  brief  survey  of  the  nature  of 
geography  may  be  quite  in  order. 

The  field  of  study  with  which  geography  is  con- 
cerned is  large  indeed!  Considered  in  its  broad 
sense    it    touches    many    of    the    departments    of 


TEE  NATUEE   OF   GEOGRAPHY  19 

human  knowledge.  It  includes  the  conception  of 
the  earth  in  space,  which  for  grandeur  is  sur- 
passed only  by  astronomy,  a  science  which  treats 
of  entire  systems  of  heavenly  bodies  with  indi- 
vidual characteristics  and  relationships.  Mani- 
foldness,  then,  is  a  chief  characteristic  of  geog- 
raphy. An  exhaustive  study  of  the  subject  in 
its  larger  meaning  would  lend  the  student  into  the 
by-paths  of  many  associated  sciences,  depart- 
ments of  which  are  recognized  elements  of 
geography,  and  which,  taken  together,  extend  this 
field  of  study  to  almost  unconquerable  limits. 

As  a  science,  geography  may  be  called  funda- 
mental. It  is  the  meeting  place  of  all  the  sci- 
ences. AVithin  the  envelopes  of  the  earth  abide 
every  factor  and  force  of  physical  science  in 
either  latent  or  dynamic,  stable  or  unstable  con- 
dition; while  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  resides 
a  world  of  life,  which  is  comprehended  through 
the  biological  sciences. 

In  its  truest  sense  the  nature  of  geography  is 
that  of  relationship.  It  is  not  the  mere  existence 
of  towering  mountains,  wind-swept  table-lands 
and  fertile  valleys  that  interest  us  most,  but 
rather  the  reasons  or  explanations  for  their 
being;  not  the  unrelated  fact  that  the  earth 
abounds  with  life,  but  rather  the  deeper  signifi- 
cance of  why  there  is  life  and  why  in  successive 
regions  there  flourish  "murmuring  pines  and 
hemlocks,"  fields  of  wheat  full  and  fair,  or  giant 
cacti  in  undisputed  supremacy.  In  its  newer  as- 
pect geography  is  concerned  with  multitudes  of 


20  THE   TEACHING   OE  GEOGRAPHY 

relationships,  a  comprehension  of  which  is  of  the 
highest  value  to  the  student.  The  pleasures  of 
travel  and  the  delights  in  nature  study  come  not 
alike  to  all.  It  is  to  him  who  can  comprehend 
cause  and  consequence  that  satisfaction  and  ap- 
preciation come. 

From  the  standpoint  of  inherent  interest, 
geography,  owing  to  its  influence  on  life,  ranks 
very  high.  It  is  concrete  and  can  be  studied  on 
a  broad  scale.  Having  so  many  points  of  attack 
there  are  many  opportunities  to  awaken  the  in- 
terests of  pupils.  Its  application  to  life  is  made 
easily  and  directly;  and  pupils  respond  readily 
with  genuine  interest  because  its  materials  and 
principles  are  immediately  useful.  Whether  it  be 
at  the  brookside  with  its  features  in  miniature,  in 
field  or  forest  where  life  responds  to  local  condi- 
tions, in  the  factory  where  earth-products  are 
transformed,  or  at  the  commercial  center  where 
the  world's  goods  are  exchanged,  the  interests 
are  alike  stimulated  and  the  desire  for  knowledge 
developed. 

Notwithstanding  its  richness  of  content,  there 
lias  been  in  tin;  past  a  decided  lack  of  apprecia- 
tion of  geography.  This  is  due  to  a  meager  un- 
derstanding of  the  subject.  Added  respect  can 
be  secured  only  through  a  deeper  and  clearer 
knowledge.  The  impulse  and  inspiration  which  a 
few  of  our  distinguished  educators  are  lending 
to  geography  at  the  present  time,  make  the  out- 
look much  brighter.  It  is  certainly  true  that  the 
subject  deserves  better  teaching  to  merit  so  many 


TEE  NATURE   OF  GEOGRAPHY  21 

years  of  the  pupil's  time.  Of  course  the  same 
can  be  said  with  even  added  emphasis  of  some 
other  subjects  of  the  curriculum.  There  is  but 
one  solution  in  any  case,  and  that  is  the  economy 
which  will  result  from  better  teaching. 

Because  of  indefinite  limits  and  breadth  of 
scope,  geography  may  lie  more  difficult  to  or- 
ganize than  some  subjects,  but  it  loses  none  of 
its  richness.  The  fact  that  geography  has  been 
considered  a  composite  science  may  have  led  some 
to  feel  that  it  is  subordinate  or  unnecessary;  or, 
that  the  overlapping  of  physics,  chemistry,  geol- 
ogy, astronomy,  etc.,  really  covers  the  ground  and 
meets  all  demands  for  it.  Prof.  Davis  denies  that 
geography  is  more  composite  than  physics  or 
chemistry  or  physiology.  Dr.  Harris  has  also 
taken  the  same  view.  It  can  easily  be  shown  that 
one  science  cannot  be  drawn  away  from  its  allies 
without  annihilation.  There  is  no  need  of  tres- 
passing anywhere.  The  term  geography  is  gain- 
ing in  significance,  ft  is  a  broad,  rich  and  dee]) 
subject,  which  has  for  departments  geology, 
physiography,  meteorology,  astronomy,  oceanog- 
raphy, and  ontography.  Let  the  teacher  who  feels 
that  geography  is  a  narrow  or  shallow  field,  test 
his  knowledge  in  any  of  the  above  subjects.  If 
ho  can  conduct  a  good  test  his  respect  for  this 
department  of  science  will  be  increased.  He  will 
find  the  subject  matter  exact,  rational,  difficult. 
far-reaching,  and  touching  human  experience  at 
an  infinite  number  of  points,  and  in  myriads  of 
wavs. 


22  THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

Before  further  discussion  let  us  consider  the 
nature  of  geography.  Any  comprehensive  treat- 
ment must  take  into  account: 

1.  The  forces  which  have  made  and  sculptured 
the  earth's  surface. 

'2.  The  present  condition  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face, so  affected  by  the  atmosphere  and  by  water, 
that  it  forms  a  habitat  for  life. 

3.  The  relationships,  or  responses,  that  obtaiu 
between  the  organic  and  inorganic  worlds. 

•i.  The  manifold  needs  of  mankind  and  the 
uses  made  of  environment  —  organic,  inorganic 
and  social — to  satisfy  these  needs. 

The  study  of  the  forces  and  processes  by  which 
the  earth's  surface  has  been  given  form  leads  to 
physiography  and  geology.  To  ignore  these 
forces  in  geography  is  to  teach  fact  without  ex- 
planation or  significance.  The  failure  of  geog 
raphy  in  the  past  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  has 
been  made  a  mere  memory  drill  on  unrelated 
items  and  isolated  facts.  Comparatively,  the  fact 
side  has  been  overdone;  the  rational  side  neg- 
lected. When  pupils  come  to  see  that  geography 
is  a  study  of  cause  and  effect,  and  not  a  study  of 
fact  without  apparent  cause,  they  will  begin  to 
have  courage  and  interest.  The  teacher's  knowl- 
edge must  he  broad  and  accurate.  lie  must  cor- 
relate fart  and  force,  and  thus  put  his  subject  on 
a  reasonable  basis.  The  teacher  must  have  a  clear 
outline   of   the  earth's   history,   and  must  under- 


THE  NATURE   OF  GEOGRAPHY  23 

stand  the  great  physiographic  processes  that  have 
wrought  through  the  ages. 

The  study  of  the  earth  as  it  is  lias  a  practical 
value,  and  the  information  should  be  definite  and 
exact.  But  when  these  facts  are  learned  inde- 
pendently of  their  antecedent  causes,  and  also 
independently  of  their  consequent  effects,  one 
must  realize  that  the  fact  side  alone  is  uninterest- 
ing and  insignificant.  Geographic  facts  drawn 
away  from  these  relations  appeal  only  to  the 
memory,  and  their  mastery  becomes  almost  wholly 
formal.  Shorn  of  these  relations  there  can  be  no 
organizing  principle,  and  instead  of  well-arranged 
categories,  we  have  a  multiplicity  of  items.  Geog- 
raphy has  been  subject  to  abuse  in  the  past  be- 
cause there  has  been  little  of  organization  dis- 
played in  its  treatment. 

Geography  is  science  only  when  the  units  of  its 
subject-matter  are  articulated  for  a  purpose. 
Facts  concerning  the  present  crust  should  be 
studied,  not  as  an  end  in  themselves,  but  as  data 
which  explain  organic  adaptation.  Surface,  soil, 
temperature  and  rainfall  are  to  be  considered 
individually  as  conditions  and  causes,  which  con- 
trol organic  responses.  But  it  is  easy,  indeed,  to 
wander  about  too  much  in  this  field.  Matter  may 
be  interesting  but  quite  irrelevant.  The  old  prac- 
tice of  looking  up  interesting  facts  concerning 
places  is,  in  the  end,  of  little  value.  No  greater 
sin  can  be  committed  than  that  of  sending  chil- 
dren to   encyclopedias  without  the  careful   guid- 


04         THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

ance  of  a  teacher  who  knows  what  he  wants  and 
why  lie  wants  it. 

Men  succeed  best  when  they  apply  their  ener- 
gies in  the  direction  that  nature's  force  is  exerted. 
Adjustment  to  inorganic  conditions  has  often 
been  tedious  and  slow,  as  is  shown  in  the  indus- 
trial history  of  Xew  England;  but  gradually  men 
have  discovered  the  fields  in  which  human  en- 
deavor meets  with  the  most  generous  reward.  The 
attention  now  given  to  forestry,  the  improved 
methods  of  irrigation,  the  systematic  study  of 
agriculture,  all  emphasize  the  wisdom  of  a  clearer" 
understanding  of  nature  and  a  better  adjustment 
to  it. 

Geography  deals  also  with  the  relations  which 
exist  between  earth  in  a  broad  sense,  and  life. 
Higher  forms  of  life  can  proceed  only  from  a 
modification  of  conditions,  or  from  the  establish- 
ment of  new  conditions,  secured  through  a  re- 
arrangement of  geographical  factors.  The  prob- 
lem of  farmer  and  gardener  is  to  discover  the 
best  relationship  between  plants  and  soil.  Pro- 
duction is  increased  and  the  period  of  diminish- 
ing returns  set  farther  in  the  future,  as  a  result 
of  the  best  adjustment.  Geography  becomes, 
then,  rational  knowledge,  and  mere  facts  and  sta- 
tistics are  forced  into  subordinate  positions.  The 
prosperity  of  Kentucky  is  due  largely  to  the 
raising  of  fine  stock  in  the  famous  Blue  Grass 
region.  But  this  region  exists  because  in  an  an- 
cient sea  were  deposited  the  calcareous  remains 
of  marine   life,  and   the  weathering  of  the  lime- 


THE  NATURE   OF  GEOGEAPIIY  25 

stone  which  this  deposition  formed  gave  Ken- 
tucky the  rich  soil  of  which  she  is  justly  proud. 
And  thus  the  life  of  the  past  ages  determines  the 
prosperity  of  the  present.  Quartz  sand  sorted 
from  the  till  of  the  receding  glacier  by  swiftly 
flowing  waters,  and  deposited  in  western  Penn- 
sylvania, has  made  Pittsburg  the  greatest  city  in 
the  United  States  for  plate  glass.  Again,  a  pros- 
perous industry  is  the  result  of  a  wise  adjustment 
of  human  endeavor  to  natural  conditions. 

Throughout  the  history  of  the  race,  man  has 
struggled  to  discover  and  to  master  natural  forces 
and  to  utilize  the  life  of  the  earth  to  his  advan- 
tage. He  is  in  harmony  with  his  surroundings 
only  when  he  sees  the  significance  of  his  environ- 
ment and  understands  the  relation  which  he  sus- 
tains toward  it.  The  branch  of  education  which 
touches  the  universe  at  the  greatest  number  of 
points  must  be  of  the  highest  value  in  revealing 
to  the  individual  the  true  meaning  of  life.  His- 
tory and  geography  teach  us  how  civilized  nations 
have  adapted  manifold  materials  to  their  uses, 
and  have  made  the  forces  of  nature  assist  in  their 
preparation — history  dealing  with  time  relations 
and  geography  with  place  relations.  The  exten- 
sive mastery  and  vast  utilization  of  the  materials 
and  forces  of  the  external  world  have  reacted 
upon  man.  have  multiplied  his  needs,  have  neces- 
sitated discovery  and  invention,  in  short,  have 
evolved  enlightened  nations,  which,  in  turn,  seek 
to  gain  a  better  understanding  and  control  of 
their   environment.      But   this   adjustment   is  not 


26         THE   TEACHING   OF   GEOGRAPHY 

confined  to  the  physical  side  of  life.  Fundament- 
ally, man's  interests  are  social.  Geography  deals 
with  some  of  these  social  relations  under  the 
heads  of  commerce,  education,  religion  and  gov- 
ernment; hence,  the  aim  of  these  phases  of  geog- 
raphy is  the  commercial,  intellectual,  religious 
and  political  adjustment. 


SUGGESTIONS  AND  QUESTIONS. 

1.  Why    is    geography   well   adapted    to    further   the   aims    of   the 

new  education  ? 

2.  Compare   geography   with   other  studies   in   richness   of   content. 
.-',.  What   is  the  chief  characteristic  of  the  new  geography  ? 

4.   J  n   judging  comparative  values   of   school   subjects   what    is   the 

standard  of  estimating  values? 
;~.   Which   is  more  important   in  geography,  knowledge  or'    facts  or 

knowledge   of   relationships?      illustrate. 
G.   Of    what    value    is    a    knowledge    of   the    earth  "s    surface    in    its 

present   condition? 
7.    Write    six    sentences    which    will    characterize    the    nature     of 

geography. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Davis.  W.    M. — "Descriptive  and    Physical    Basis   of   Geography," 

Ivl.    Rev.    Vol.    III.   p.   417. 
Dryer,   f'lias.    R. — "What    is    Geography?"    Pamphlet.    Moore    and 

Langen    Press,  Terre  Haute.   1ml. 
<.;!].-.    [)avi<!      ' '  The    Pedagogy    oi    Geography,"    Pod.    Seminary, 

Vol.  xiv,  p.  :;<t. 

Redway,  •'.    VY. —  The  New  Basis  of  Gcoyraplnj. 


CHAPTER  II. 

Geographic  Conditions  and  Effects,  or  Controls 
and  Responses. 

topics  to  be  considered. 

The  importance  of  geographical  environment;  what  power  man 
lias  over  environment. 

A  classification  of  the  factors  or  controls  of  environment;  a  brief 
discussion  of  each. 

Illustrations  of  man  "s  modification  of  environment;  induced  defi- 
nitions of  control  and  response;  geography  a  study  of  con- 
trols and  responses. 

The  old  geography  gave  little  intimation  of  the 
relationship  that  exists  between  controls  and  re- 
sponses. Arbitrary  facts  characterized  its  teach- 
ing. There  was  little  suggestion  that  the  modi- 
fications and  distributions  of  life,  and  the  indus- 
tries and  characteristics  of  peoples,  were  re- 
sponses to  the  guidance  of  surrounding  forces, 
or  geographic  influences.  Such  a  view  of  geog- 
raphy robs  it  of  its  richness  and  reduces  the  sub- 
ject from  a  science  to  the  mere  data  of  relation- 
ship. Life  is  everywhere  conditioned  by  environ- 
ment. "Historic  events,  business  transactions, 
and  industrial  operations  all  have  place  rela- 
tions and  are  subject  to  conditions  embodied  in 
their  physical   surroundings.     This  precludes  no 


2S  THE   TEACHING   OF   GEOGEAPHY 

other  element  in  the  setting  of  the  event,  for 
there  are  time  relations,  legal  relations,  and  sev- 
eral other  classes  of  non-material  environmental 
elements,  which  in  the  present  discussion  are 
simply  waived  the  more  clearly  to  see  the  phys- 
ical stratum,"  is  the  statement  of  George  D. 
Hubbard. 

Man  can  modify  his  environment,  physical  and 
social,  but  he  cannot  re-create  it.  So  if  reservoirs 
or  streams  are  convenient,  he  can  irrigate  arid 
lands;  if  old  waterways  are  discovered,  canals  are 
quite  feasible;  if  a  river  current  is  too  weak  to 
carry  its  load  and  so  obstructs  commerce,  jetties 
are  practicable.  In  the  most  successful  endeavor, 
men  must  consider  well  both  the  favorable  and 
unfavorable  elements  of  their  environment,  and 
finally  choose  the  line  of  least  resistance.  Xature 
must  favor  human  undertaking  if  the  highest  suc- 
cess is  attained. 

Jn  order  that  beginners  may  secure  somewhat 
of  the  significance  of  this  topic,  and  since  those 
wiio  are  interested  may  be  inconveniently  situ- 
ated with  reference  to  libraries,  a  short  discus- 
sion will  be  given  under  the  following  heads: 

1.  Temperature  Controls. 

-.  Moisture  ( 'ontrols. 

'■>.  Soil  and  Kock  ( 'ontrols. 

4.  Atmospheric  Controls. 

.">.  (  hganic  ( 'ontrols. 

(J.  Topographic  and  Barrier  Controls. 

7,  Human  and  Social  Controls. 


CONDITIONS  AND  EFFECTS  29 

1.  The  distribution  of  plant  life,  and  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  its  form,  are  dependent  upon 
temperature.  If  the  temperature  falls  below  the 
freezing  point  for  much  of  the  year,  plant  life  is 
prohibited,  and  since  animals  are  largely  depend- 
ent upon  plants  for  their  habitat  and  food  supply, 
terrestrial  animal  life  disappears.  The  extreme 
tundra  regions  offer  examples  of  this  kind.  Life 
in  arctic  regions  is  largely  aquatic  since  land 
temperatures  fall  so  low  that  life  becomes  extinct. 
The  temperature  of  water,  except  at  or  near  the 
surface,  does  not  fall  to  the  freezing  point.  Water 
is,  therefore,  a  medium  in  which  life  may  exist. 

According  to  temperature  and  the  responses 
which  follow,  land  masses  naturally  break  up  into 
climatic  and  life  provinces,  topics  well  treated  by 
Russell.*  That  temperature  is  very  important  as 
a  control  over  distribution  of  life  is  attested  by 
Merriam*  in  the  following  words:  ''It  is  now 
pretty  generally  conceded  that  temperature  and 
humidity  are  the  chief  factors  governing  the  dis- 
tribution of  life,  and  that  temperature  is  more 
potent  than  humidity." 

The  physical  condition  and  character  of  peoples 
are  to  a  considerable  degree  responses  to  tem- 
perature. The  monotonous  cold  of  the  arctic 
regions  and  the  blazing  heat  of  the  equatorial, 
have  deadening  effects  upon  the  inhabitants. 
Stature  and  complexion  are  changed  and  mental 
and  moral  qualities  caused  to  deteriorate.  In 
those  regions,  where  there  are  sudden  changes  in 

*  Sim'  Riblinsrnphy. 


30         THE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

temperature  and  a  succession  of  seasons,  man  is 
stimulated  in  many  ways,  and  here  we  find  the 
highest  degree  of  development.  Further  refer- 
ence to  the  influence  of  climate  is  made  in  the 
chapter  on  "Geography  and  Life." 

2.  The  host  portions  of  our  country  have  an 
annual  rainfall  of  30  to  60  inches,  such  regions 
being  well  suited,  so  far  as  moisture  is  concerned, 
co  agriculture.  Farm  crops  cannot  be  produced 
successfully  where  the  annual  rainfall  is  much 
below  20,  though  the  introduction  of  "dry  farm- 
ing"' is  overcoming  to  some  extent  the  lack  of 
moisture.  ."Where  the  annual  rainfall  is  below  10 
the  country  becomes  nearly  barren,  bunch  grass 
and  sage  brush  being  common  forms  of  the  sparse 
vegetation.  In  regions  of  generous  rainfall,  for- 
ests abound.  In  Washington,  where  the  annual 
precipitation  is  from  GO  to  100  inches,  stand  the 
majestic  fir  forests.  Forests  gradually  disappear 
on  approaching  arid  lands  or  deserts.  In  cold  or 
arid  regions,  nature  conserves  the  limited  amount 
of  moisture  by  decreasing  the  evaporation  area  of 
foliage.  Hence  the  "needle"  of  conifers  is  a 
moisture  adaptation,  as  is  the  total  absence  of 
leave-  in  certain  desert  species.  Again,  the  roots 
of  some  desert  plants  attain  a  length  equal  to  live 
times  the  height,  so  eager  are  they  to  secure 
moisture. 

Special  responses  are  seen  in  animals  also. 
Schirmer  has  pointed  out  that  the  camel's  hum]) 
is  a  reserve  from  which  nourishment  is  supplied 
during  long  privation  from  hunger. 


CONDITIONS  AND  EFFECTS  31 

The  nomadic  habit  of  oriental  people  is  a  re- 
sponse to  environment,  chiefly  to  the  arid  condi- 
tions. Such  people  are  compelled  to  go  from 
place  to  place  in  order  to  secure  pasturage  and 
water  for  their  herds,  and  hence  they  are  alert, 
enduring,  and  generally  intelligent. 

3.  The  quality  of  the  soil,  in  conjunction  with 
temperature  and  moisture,  determine  the  distribu- 
tion and  character  of  plant  life.  Limestone  and 
phosphate  rocks  yield  the  richest  soils.  The  cot- 
ton industry  of  the  inner  lowlands  of  Alabama  is 
a  response  to  its  excellent  soils  from  decomposing 
beds  of  limestone,  while  the  soils  of  the  barren 
Cuesta  or  " Chunnenugga, "  are  from  resistant 
sandstone,  and,  as  a  control,  are  negative.  Popu- 
lation avoids  this  uninviting  belt.  Similar  to  the 
cotton  belt  is  the  bine  grass  region  of  Kentucky, 
with  its  meadows,  pastures  and  high-bred  stock. 

Soil  responses,  either  positive  or  negative,  can 
be  seen  anywhere.  'Wheat  responds  admirably  to 
the  lacustral  soils  of  old  Lake  Agassiz;  "corn  is 
king'''  in  the  drift  soils  of  the  prairie  plains;  and 
longleaf  tobacco  is  the  leading  crop  in  the  red 
sandstone  valley  of  the  Connecticut  river. 

Rock  is  a  term  that  may  be  applied  to  all  in- 
organic materials  and  is  referred  to  here  because 
mineral  resources  of  many  kinds  are  controls  of 
industries,  growth  of  cities,  construction  of  roads, 
immigration,  and  are  often  subjects  of  national 
discussion  and  legislative  contention. 

4.  Were  the  atmosphere  static  it  would  hardly 
deserve  mention   as   a   control,  except   from   the 


32  THE   TEACHING   OF   GEOGRAPHY 

standpoint  of  its  component  gases.  But  the 
atmosphere  is  always  moving,  the  winds  some- 
times attaining  a  great  velocity  and  frequently 
shifting  in  direction,  causing  extreme  changes  in 
temperature  and  rainfall.  Winds  in  themselves 
constitute  important  controls.  Vegetation  is  often 
severely  whipped  and  .sometimes  torn  from  its 
moorings  by  gales  and  hurricanes.  It  is  readily 
observed  in  our  northern  states  that  trees,  ex- 
posed to  the  winds,  lean  to  the  east,  and  that  the 
longer  branches  point  in  the  prevailing  windward 
direction.  In  dry  areas  strong  winds  drive  sand 
and  dust  before  them,  often  covering  vegetation. 
Forests  are  buried  in  encroaching  sand  dunes,  as 
in  Dune  Park,  Indiana.  Sea  water  is  sometimes 
driven  inland  by  unusual  winds,  causing  death 
and  destruction.  The  tidal  wave  catastrophe  at 
Galveston,  Texas,  illustrates  the  power  of  the 
wind  in  causing  the  sea  to  invade  low  coastal 
plains.  Soils  are  sometimes  completely  removed 
from  bed  rock  by  wind  action,  thereby  making  life 
impossible. 

5.  Not  only  do  the  inorganic  features  and  the 
forces  which  play  upon  them  condition  and  de- 
termine life,  but  often  life  forms  react  construct- 
ively or  destructively  upon  the  organic  world 
itself.  It  may  often  be  that  in  this  sense  a  re- 
sponse becomes,  in  turn,  a  control.  There  is  a 
constant  warfare  in  the  realms  of  plant  and  ani- 
mal life.  ''Though  a  summer  field,"  says  .John 
Fiske.  "seems  at  first  to  be  a  scene  of  unalloyed 
happiness,  one  has  only  to  delve  a  little  deeper  to 


CONDITIONS  AND  EFFECTS  33 

find  it  a  scone  of  robbery  utterly  shameless  and 
murder,  utterly  cruel."  Again,  since  animals  feed 
largely  upon  plants,  the  plant  world  has  much  to 
do  in  determining  the  distribution  of  animals. 
The  abundance  of  fish  off  the  coast  of  New  Eng- 
land is  due  to  the  ample  food  supply — crustaceans 
and  mollusks — which  in  turn  thrive  upon  the  lower 
forms  of  life  swept  in  by  the  Gulf  Stream  and 
Labrador  Current.  The  abandonment  of  the  wheat 
industry  in  some  of  the  western  states  has  done 
much  to  exterminate  the  chinch  bug.  And  so  ex- 
amples could  be  multiplied. 

(!.  Under  the  head  of  topographic  and  barrier 
controls  may  be  classed  relief  features  of  all 
kinds  —  plateaus,  mountains,  valleys,  plains,  des- 
erts, gorges,  canons,  moraines,  water-falls  and 
water  bodies.  Some  of  the  features  here  enumer- 
ated, as,  for  example,  the  plateau,  offer  no  new 
consideration.  The  greater  altitude  causes  a  fall 
in  temperature,  which  in  turn  precipitates  the 
moisture  on  its  more  gentle  elevations  or  at  the 
escarpment  which  forms  its  margin.  Hence  ele- 
vation here  resolves  itself  into  a  temperature 
and  a  moisture  control.  It  may  be  also  that  a 
third  component  appears,  viz.,  an  atmospheric 
control,  since  the  added  elevation  may  permit 
winds  to  sweep  the  region  with  great  carrying 
and  destructive  force.  These  new  conditions,  usu- 
ally brought  about  by  an  uplift  of  a  portion  of 
the  rock  crust,  may  have  wrought  a  complete 
transformation  from  a  salubrious  and  fruitful 
valley  or  low  plain  to  a  cool,  dry,  and  wind-swept 


34         THE   TEACHING  OF   GEOGRAPHY 

plateau,  for  which  Tibet  will  serve  as  an  example. 
For  centuries  its  dry,  cold  surface  has  been  swept 
by  the  prevailing  westerlies  until  it  has  yielded, 
in  the  form  of  line  dust,  the  famous  loess  soils 
found  in  the  lower  valleys  of  China.  Barriers 
in  the  form  of  inaccessible  mountain  ranges  and 
large  bodies  of  water  are  effective  controls  over 
distribution  of  life.  Wallace  has  held  that  not 
only  do  natural  barriers  have  much  to  do  with  the 
distribution  of  life,  but  that  the  origin  of  new 
species  in  general  is  due  to  changes  in  geograph- 
ical environment.* 

7.  Human  and  Social  Control.  No  special  case 
need  be  made  of  human  control,  since  man  re- 
sponds to  organic  environment  and  acts  also  as  a 
control  over  it  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  do 
other  forms  of  life.  It  is  a  matter  more  of  degree 
and  of  perfection  than  of  principle.  The  ability 
to  reason  gives  man  added  advantages  in  his 
struggle  for  existence  and  supremacy.  In  pio- 
neer days  men  sailed  np  streams  until  falls  were 
reached;  here  portages  were  made  and  camps 
were  formed,  which  in  time  became  cities.  It  was 
discovered  that  the  swiftly  flowing  water  offered 
advantages  for  power,  so  in  time  mills  were  built. 
The  great  flour  mills  of  Minneapolis  are  located 
at  St.  Anthony's  Falls,  conveniently  near  the 
wheat  fields  of  the  west  and  at  a  focal  point  of 
great  commercial  lines  to  the  south  and  east.  But 
even   here   man    is    responding    rather   than   con- 

*  Island  Life,  tintl  Studios  Scientific  and  Social,  Vol.  I,  Wallace. 


CONDITIONS  AND  EFFECTS  35 

trolling,  though  the  psychic  element  must  be  con- 
sidered. 

Man  often,  however,  modifies  his  inorganic  en- 
vironment in  a  way  and  to  an  end  that  might 
never  be  wrought  by  natural  forces  or  physio- 
graphic processes.  Instances  of  this  kind  are  often 
seen  in  the  construction  of  roads  and  waterways, 
well  illustrated  by  the  Panama  project  and  the 
Drainage  (/anal  of  Chicago.  But  in  such  cases 
man  is  guided  and  controlled  by  nature  to  a  large 
degree.  Had  not  an  old  waterway  been  discov- 
ered, in  the  latter  case,  showing  that  Lake  Mich- 
igan once  really  did  discharge  its  waters  south- 
ward into  the  Illinois  river,  man  probably  never 
would  have  undertaken  the  great  engineering  feat 
of  constructing  a  drainage  canal.  Scholars  have 
shown  that  not  only  physical  attributes  of  all  life 
are  responses  to  organic  and  inorganic  environ- 
ment, hut  further  that  the  social  institutions  of 
civilized  races  are  determined,  very  largely,  in 
the  same  manner. 

From  the  foregoing  the  student  should  have 
reached  the  conclusion  that — 

1.  A  control  is  an  element  of  environment  that 
exerts  a  marked  influence  upon  the  development 
of  a  life  form.  It  may  prohibit,  favor  or  deter- 
mine the  particular  trend  of  life. 

2.  A  response  is  a  characteristic  of  life  forms, 
effected  through  its  yielding  to  the  continued  in- 
fluence of  a  control  or  set  of  controls. 

In  its  best  sense,  then,  geography  is  a  study  of 
controls   and  responses.     Tt  is  a   study  of  life — 


36         THE   TEACHING  OF   GEOGRAPHY 

men  included — as  related  to  environment.  Physio- 
graphic features  and  forces  constitute  the  major 
controls,  with  organic  controls  as  minors.  Says 
AY.  M.  Davis:  "In  its  present  modern  phase, 
geography  is  essentially  concerned  with  the  ra- 
tional correlation  of  the  items  that  fall  under  its 
two  parts :  on  the  one  hand,  the  items  of  inorganic 
conditions  that  constitute  the  physical  environ- 
ment of  living  forms;  on  the  other  hand,  the  items 
of  organic  response  made  by  living  forms  to  their 
environment." 

The  richest  and  most  significant  phase  of  geog- 
raphy, then,  must  terminate  in  this  relationship, 
and  teachers  of  the  subject  must  comprehend  the 
importance  of  treating  the  subject  scientifically. 


SUGGESTIONS   AND   QUESTIONS. 

1.  What    is   meant   by   environment?     By   inorganic   environment? 

By  organic  environment  ?     By  social  environment  .' 

2.  To  what  extent   is  the  distribution  of  plant  and  animal  life  due 

to  temperature?     Why  is  there  little  life  in  polar  regions' 
.'!.  What    is    the    relative    importance    of    moisture    as    a    control? 

Are  arid  lands  and  deserts  necessarily  poor  in  plant  foods? 
4.   What  is  the  origin  of  soils?      What   formations  yield  rich  soils? 

Poor  soils? 
.".   How  do  winds  affect  vegetation?     Illustrate. 
G.    Show  how  one  form  of  life  often  controls  other  forms.     Is  this 

true  of  both  the  animal  and  plant  kingdoms? 
7.   Name    several     instances    in    which    topographic    features    have 

controlled  the  form  and  distribution  of  life. 

TOR  FURTHER    STUDY. 

1.   What    is   the    annual   rainfall    in    your   locality?      Ts    it    well    dis- 
tributed?     What   crops  need  the  most  moisture? 


CONDITIONS  AND  EFFECTS  37 

2.  Write  an  essay  describing  the  origin  ami  character  of  the 
soils  of  your  locality.     King's  The  Soil  will  be  very  helpful. 

','>.  Write  an  essay  showing  that  ''The  Life  of  the  Present  is 
Determined  by  the  Life  of  the  Past.'"  Shaler's  Nature  and 
Man   in  America  will  be  an  excellent  reference. 

4.   Write  a  description  of  a   desert.'     See    VanDyke's   The  Desert. 

~).  Read  the  chapter  in  Brigham's  Geographical  Influences  in 
American  History  entitled  ''Tin1  Appalachian  Barrier''  and 
prepare  a  brief  summary.  If  available,  Dr.  J.  P.  Turner's 
The  Old  West  will  be  very  useful  and  interesting. 

G.  vVhat  are  the  dominant  controls  in  your  own  locality,  and  how 
do  they  influence  life?     Develop  this  topic  fully. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Shaler,  Nathaniel — Nature  and  Man  in  America. 

D'Alvilla.  Albert   Joseph — Saliara  and  Lapland. 

Goode,  J.  Paul — ''The  Human  Response  to  the  Physical  Environ- 
ment.1'  Jour,   of   Geography,  Vol.    ill. 

Reclus,  Elisee — Earth  and  Its  Inhabitants,  Vol.  II. 

Whitbeck.  R.  II. — "Response  to  Surroundings,  a  Geographical 
Principle."  dour,  of  Gog.,  Vol.  III. 

Hubbard,  George  D. — "A  Case  of  Geographic  Influence  on  Human 
Affairs. ' '  Pamphlet. 

Jefferson,  .Mark  S.  W.— "Wind  Effects."  Jour,  of  Geog..  Vol.  III. 

Piatt,  Mary  I. — "Climatic  Control  in  the  Desert,''  Jour,  of  Geog., 
Vol.   IV. 

Buckle,    Henry  Thomas — History  of  Civilization. 

Allen,  J.  A. — "Geographical  Distribution  of  Animals,"  Bui.  U. 
S.  Geol.  Survey  of  Territories,   Vol.    IV.   1S78. 

Russell,  b  C — North  America,  Chaps,   lib  IV,  V. 

Merriam.  C.  Hart — "Geographic  Distribution  of  Life  in  Xorth 
America.'-  Smithsonian  Report,   1S91. 


CHAPTER  III. 

Phases  of  Geographical  Study, 
topics  to  be  considered. 

The  phases  of  geographical  study. 

Observational  geography;  its  relation  to  nature  study;  the  require- 
ments of  successful  observational  work;  its  value  to  the  child. 

Representative  geography;  explanation  of;  how  and  when  this 
phase  should  be  introduced;  pupils  should  express  their  own 
ideas. 

Descriptive  geography;  pupil's  new  method  of  securing  ideas; 
observational  method  limited  to  local  environment ;  the  idea  of 
the  world  gained  through  descriptive  geography. 

Rational  geography;  the  meaning  of  the  term;  the  causal  or 
rational  element:  why  it  should  be  emphasized. 

The  social  phase;  its  importance;  it  evaluates  the  materials  of 
geography  and  selects  that  which  is  of  most  worth  in  life. 

Geographical  study  has  been  separated  into 
several  phases  as  a  result  of  psychological  adjust- 
ment.* These  phases  are  clearly  defined,  not  be- 
cause there  is  any  sudden  change  in  the  nature  of 
mind  activity,  but  because  the  subject  is  such  tint 
it  demands  study  in  several  distinct  iields.  and 
the  order  of  succession  is  based  upon  the  mental 
development  of  the  child.  The  phases,  together 
with  the  order,  as  agreed  upon  by  some  educators, 
are : 

*  Report  of  tin   Committu   of  Ten. 

38 


PEASES   OF   GEOGRAPHICAL   STUDY  39 

1.  Observational   or  Home  Geography. 

2.  representative  Geography. 

3.  Descriptive  Geography. 

4.  Rational  Geography. 

5.  The  Social  Phase. 

The  writer  adds  the  fifth  or  "Social  Phase," 
which  parallels  each  of  the  other  phases,  as  far 
as  they  differentiate  themselves,  throughout  the 
course.  Unlike  the  phases  based  upon  mental  de- 
velopment, it  involves  the  very  function  of  educa- 
tion, the  life  relationships  of  the  individual  to  his 
fellows  as  seen  from  the  viewpoint  of  the  three 
great  systems,  viz.,  "sustaining,"  "transporting" 
and  "regulating"*  which  for  our  purpose  may 
be  called  the  industrial  systems. 

I.       OBSERVATIONAL  GEOGEAPHY. 

Geographical  study  actually  begins  when  the 
child  enters  school,  though  it  is  not  dignified  with 
the  formal  name  of  geography  until  the  elemen- 
tary book  is  begun  in  the  fourth  year.  The  intro- 
duction of  the  formal  study  is  or  should  be  made 
through  the  study  of  nature.  The  object  of  sys- 
tematic nature  study  in  the  lower  grades  is  to 
put  the  child  into  full  sympathy  with  his  imme- 
diate environment.  Advancement  to  the  study  of 
geography  proper  is  then  in  full  accord  with  the 
accepted  principles  of  pedagogy.  The  child's 
circle  of  information  is  extended,  not  in  a  formal 
way.  but  in  a  manner  that  appeals  to  the  child's 

*  Small  and  Vincent  :     Introduction  to  Sociology. 


40         THE   TEACHING  OF   GEOGRAPHY 

understanding  and  establishes  a  permanent  in- 
terest. The  child  should  get  his  early  instruction 
at  first  hand;  later,  he  will  be  compelled  to  trust 
to  the  observations  of  others  to  describe  countries 
and  conditions  too  remote  for  him  to  visit.  Now, 
it  is  evident  that  the  large  part  of  his  information 
must  come  to  him  through  the  medium  of  books, 
which  he  must  have  the  ability  to  interpret.  The 
most  important  result  of  observational  work  in 
geography  is  the  establishment  of  basal  ideas, 
concrete  and  accurate,  which  are  not  only  to  be 
the  foundation  of  his  knowledge,  but  which  are 
•absolutely  necessary  to  any  reasonable  conception 
of  the  earth  through  the  medium  of  books.  A  cul- 
tivated imagination  must  enable  the  child  to  make 
the  transition  from  the  phenomena  of  the  carefully 
observed  roadside  rill,  to  a  conception  of  the  same 
processes  when  supplied  with  the  energy  of  a 
Mississippi.  Observational  geography  and  nature 
study  furnish  the  rational  extension  of  the  child's 
mental  horizon;  it  furnishes  that  training  in  per- 
ception, imagination  and  memory  which  a  further 
>tndy  of  the  subject  demands;  and  it  supplies  the 
mind  with  typical  basic  ideas  which  are  to  aid  in 
the  interpretation  of  geographical  literature. 

The  period  of  observational  geography  proper 
does  not  require  the  preparation  of  a  set  lesson, 
but  it  does  require — 

(a)  ( >n  the  part  of  the  pupil,  the  activity  of  sense- 

perception  and— 

(b)  On  the  part  of  the  teacher,  directive  skill  in 


PHASES   OF   GEOGRAPHICAL    STUDY  41 

questioning  to   the  end  that  definite  com- 
prehensible facts  be  established. 

In  the  early  phases  of  geography  there  is  no 
differentiation  from  nature  study,  and  the  nature 
lessons  of  first,  second  and  third  grades  should 
form  an  integral  part  of  the  course  in  geography. 
Indeed,  observational  work  should  not  cease  at 
any  stated  time,  but  should  be  carried  on  through- 
out the  school  course.  But  the  first  three  years 
are  especially  devoted  to  observational  work  be- 
cause sense-perception  is  active  and  sense-impres- 
sion necessary  to  the  child's  development;  be- 
cause, at  this  age,  being  unable  to  read  helpful 
science  materials,  the  child  must  learn  through 
direct  contact  with  nature;  and  because  a  world, 
new  and  wonderful  to  childhood,  is  furnishing 
constant  stimuli  to  responsive  centers.  It  is,  there- 
fore, the  immediate  function  of  school  and  teacher 
to  bring  child  and  nature  into  advantageous  rela- 
tionships so  that  sense-impressions  may  be  vivid 
and  lasting. 

It  often  seems  that  teachers  are  afraid  to  attack 
the  nature  study  work  for  fear  they  will  not  do 
the  right  thing,  or  that  they  may  not  use  the  right 
method.  They  should  remember  that  eventually 
the  child's  facts  of  science  will  be  classified,  and 
that  in  his  very  limited  geographical  environ- 
ment there  is  little  danger  that  any  lesson  taught 
will  fail  to  be  of  use  later;  and  further  that  the 
motive — the  understanding  and  appreciation  of 
environment — if  realized,  will    iustifv  the  means 


42         THE   TEACHING  OF   GEOGEAPHY 

employed.  This  being  true,  teachers  should  then 
set  about  their  tasks  with  courage  and  even  bold- 
ness. Their  own  interests  will  deepen,  and,  it 
they  are  possessed  of  the  teaching  spirit,  their  use 
of  books  on  both  method  and  subject-matter  can 
hardly  fail  to  direct  them  into  pedagogical  paths. 
Latent  interests  may  often  be  transformed  and 
the  possibilities  of  nature  study  and  geographical 
topics  be  made  clear  through  the  reading  of  such 
literature  as  "The  Story  of  a  Salmon,"  "The 
Story  of  a  Stone,"  "The  Ascent  of  the  Matter- 
horn,"  all  by  David  Starr  Jordan,  and  "The  Des- 
ert," by  YanDyke.  Furthermore,  the  vast  num- 
ber of  bulletins  and  pamphlets  published  by 
schools,  by  experiment  stations,  and  by  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  will  be  of  great  use  to 
teachers  generally. 

II.       REPRESENTATIVE    GEOGRAPHY. 

Representative  geography  is  a  form  of  expres- 
sion through  established  symbols — of  ideas  al- 
ready comprehended.  But  soon  it  comes  to  mean 
the  interpretation  of  symbols  for  the  purpose  of 
securing  ideas. 

The  observational  work  is  oral.  The  pupil 
works  only  under  immediate  guidance  of  the 
teacher.  The  time  soon  conies  when  the  process 
of  education  demands  more  expression  from  the 
child.  So  far,  his  geography  has  been  learned 
directly  from  nature-,  but  soon  he  must  resort  to 
books.  It  is  necessary  that  he  then  understand 
the  use  of  maps,  and  the  logical  procedure  seems 


PHASES   OF   GEOGRAPHICAL   STUDY  43 

to  be  that  of  mapping  the  home  district  or  some 
part  of  it.  Usually  the  pupil  begins  by  mapping 
his  school  room.  If  seats  do  not  face  north,  the 
pupil  should  occupy  a  chair  facing  the  north,  in 
this  early  study  of  maps.  He  now  becomes  active ; 
he  must  invent  for  himself.  After  making  the 
map  of  the  school  house,  the  pupil  maps  the  school 
yard,  the  district  or  the  ward,  locating  the  school, 
his  home,  the  postoffice,  or  other  building  or  loca- 
tion that  touches  his  interest.  The  mapping  of 
these  areas  not  only  makes  the  child  somewhat 
familiar  with  the  idea  of  scale  and  the  meaning 
of  maps,  but  the  accompanying  descriptions 
worked  out  by  the  child  himself  react  upon  his 
observations  previously  made,  making  them 
sharper  and  clearer.  By  use  of  the  sand  table, 
the  pupil  learns  to  represent  plains,  slopes, 
divides,  hills,  and  mountains  ;  but  this  work  should 
be  a  representation  of  observed  phenomena  in  na- 
ture, and  not  a  reproduction  from  books.  Pupils, 
from  the  start,  must  be  impressed  with  the  fact 
that  geography  is  a  study  of  the  earth  and  not  of 
the  book.  The  next  step,  that  of  reading  a  relief 
map,  will  not  be  difficult  for  the  child  who  has 
comprehended  the  earlier  work.  Thus  he  gradu- 
ally comes  into  the  use  of  symbols;  but  they 
closely  follow  concrete  ideas.  Indeed,  the  pictur- 
ing of  an  idea  necessitates  its  disentanglement 
from  a  mass  of  information,  often  not  fully  organ- 
ized and  assimilated,  making  its  lines  more  dis- 
tinct, and  adding  to  its  significance.  Frequently 
we  do  not  realize  how  imperfect  our  notions  are 


44         THE   TEACHING  OF   GEOGEAPHY 

until  we  attempt  a  written  description  or  an  illus- 
trative diagram.  Two  important  results  should 
follow  the  activity  of  this  phase  of  study.  It 
should  clarify  and  intensify  the  basal  notions  of 
his  observation  work ;  and  it  should  introduce  the 
child  to  the  use  of  those  symbols  which  are  pre- 
requisites to  the  next  stage,  descriptive  geog- 
raphy. 

III.       DESCRIPTIVE    GEOGRAPHY. 

During  the  observational  period  the  pupil  is 
largely  dependent.  lie  has  not  yet  learned  the 
use  of  the  symbols  through  which  lie  can  be  inde- 
pendent. Neither  docs  he  at  this  time  possess  any 
considerable  mass  of  related  knowledge.  Hav- 
ing come  into  possession  of  a  reasonable  body 
of  facts  closely  related  to  his  own  life  and  in- 
terests, lie  proceeds  in  the  second  stage  to  adapt 
a  set  of  symbols  to  this  knowledge.  Mis  work  is 
creative  here,  but  still  only  partially  independent. 
Much  guidance  is  yet  required  by  the  teacher.  The 
third  stage  places  tbe  pupil  still  more  upon  his 
own  responsibility.  He  must  now  get  his  ideas 
from  books  of  travel,  from  gazetteers,  from  maps, 
chart-,  etc.,  always  under  strict  direction  of  the 
teacher,  depending  upon  imagination  and  con- 
structive conception  to  make  these  ideas  strong 
and  vivid.  The  tendency  of  geography  in  this 
period  is  to  become  abstract  and  to  lack  reality,  a 
tendency  which  is  obviated  only  by  the  pupil's 
exercise  of  his  imagination,  and  by  oral  illustra- 
tions, pictures,  lantern  views  and  held  excursions. 


PEASES   OF   GEOGRAPHICAL    STUDY  45 

Practice  in  constructing  accurate  mental  pictures 
which  shall  accord  with  the  word  paintings  of  oral 
or  written  description  is  invaluable.  The  exercise 
leads  to  the  acquisition  of  rich  and  well-defined 
information,  and  incidentally  secures  mental  dis- 
cipline. 

Since  the  average  pupil  has  little  opportunity  to 
learn  of  the  world  at  first  hand,  it  soon  becomes 
necessary  to  get  ideas  and  information  second 
hand,  or  through  the  medium  of  books.  Since 
commercially  related  countries  do  much  for  one 
another,  the  pupil  must  learn  of  other  homes  than 
his  own  and  of  the  dependence  of  his  own  home 
life  upon  the  home  life  of  far  away  people. 

Descriptive  geography,  in  general,  covers  the 
period  of  the  intermediate  grades.  It  is  under- 
stood, of  course,  that  there  is  no  line  of  demarca- 
tion between  these  phases  of  geography,  and  that 
the  descriptive  phase,  for  example,  will  extend 
entirely  through  the  succeeding  work.  Descriptive 
geography  predominates  at  a  time  when  memory 
and  imagination  are  very  active  and  before  the 
time  when  relationships  make  the  strongest 
a]  1] teals  to  the  child-mind.  During  this  phase  the 
gathering  of  data,  often  of  a  detailed  character. 
occupies  much  of  the  pupil's  time.  In  courses 
based  largely  upon  text-books.it  constitutes  the 
so-called  "first  round.'1  Geographical  readers, 
books  of  travel,  and  selected  articles  from  current 
literature  are  highly  in  order,  especially  if  well 
illustrated. 

The   various   necessaries   and   luxuries   of   our 


4G         THE   TEACHING  OF   GEOGRAPHY 

home  life  offer  a  natural  approach  to  many  topics 
widely  enough  distributed  to  lead  inductively  to  a 
general  view  of  the  earth  as  a  whole  and  to  con- 
siderable detailed  knowledge  of  it. 

TV.       RATIONAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

The  observation  of  results  and  the  acquirement 
of  facts  lead  the  child  to  look  for  reasons.  Ex- 
planations of  causal  relations  should  be  made  at 
all  times  during  the  study,  when  they  can  be  made 
to  appeal.  But  the  pupil  must  not  be  burdened 
with  an  explanation  which  he  cannot  comprehend. 
The  study  of  rational  geography  is  wisely  de- 
ferred until  the  reason  is  active;  when,  as  Dr. 
Harris  says,  the  pupil  forms  the  habit  of  looking 
upon  one  fact  as  the  explanation  of  another.  The 
child's  whole  life  has  been  devoted  to  the  acquire- 
ment of  facts ;  he  is  now  to  discover  how  facts  are 
related  to  one  another.  It  is  true  that  the  un- 
trained mind  explains  one  fact  by  another  having 
no  relation  to  it,  and  therefore  his  notions  of  the 
world  become  distorted  and  superstitious.  The 
rational  element  of  geography  is  especially  prom- 
inent in  physiography.  The  pupil  here  compares 
and  relates  the  facts  of  his  earlier  experience  and 
from  them  deduces  general  principles.  He  learns 
to  view  all  of  the.  earth's  materials  and  natural 
forces  as  inter-related  and  adjusted.  Through 
industrial  geography  he  learns  how  civilized  men 
have  controlled  forces  and  modified  materials  to 
subserve  their  needs. 

The  introduction  of  the  causal  or  rational  priii- 


PHASES   OF   GEOGRAPHICAL    STUDY  47 

ciple  into  geography  is  duo  to  Carl  Ritter.  Later 
scholars  have  elaborated  his  notion,  which  as- 
sumes the  form  of  relationship  between  environ- 
mental control  and  organic  response.  This  is 
treated  more  fully  in  a  succeeding  chapter. 

Prof.  Dryer  recognizes  the  rational  element  of 
geography  when  he  defines  its  function  as  follows: 
''The  business  of  geography  is  first  to  determine 
accurately  the  distribution  of  each  and  all  of  the 
factors  of  geography  (land,  water,  air,  plants, 
men)  and,  second,  to  discover  the  causes  which 
have  brought  about  the  distribution  of  each ;  and, 
third,  to  explain  the  relation  of  each  factor  or 
group  of  factors  to  all  of  the  rest." 

Hence  cause,  relationship  and  consequence  seem 
to  merit  special  emphasis.  Says  Prof.  Davis : 
"Another  step  of  equal  importance  ...  is 
the  change  from  the  empirical  to  the  explanatory 
or  rational  or  genetic  method  of  treating  the  ele- 
mental facts  that  enter  into  geographical  rela- 
tionships."    A\  ni.  T.  Harris  puts  it  this  way: 

"Above  all,  I  should  wish  to  call  to  mind  again, 
as  the  central  reason  for  its  place  in  the  curricu- 
lum, the  general  value  of  geography  in  giving  the 
pupil  an  insight  into  natural  causes.  In  early 
periods  of  the  history  of  mankind,  and  among  all 
savage  peoples  that  are  contemporary  with  us, 
the  facts  of  nature  are  explained  by  animism,  that 
is  to  say.  by  the  interference  of  evil  spirits.  A 
vast  network  of  superstition  covers  the  face  of 
nature  from  the  gaze  of  the  savage.  But  the  child 
who  begins  to  study  geography  begins  to  find  one 


48         TEE   TEACEING   OF  GEOGRAPEY 

fact  behind  another  fact.  He  learns  forces,  and 
how  forces  make  things,  and  how  forces  modify 
things.  His  knowledge  constantly  grows  from 
the  symbolic,  which  ignores  the  causal  nexus,  over 
to  the  scientific  and  prosaic  view,  which  compre- 
hends the  rationale  of  phenomena." 

V.       THE    SOCIAL   PHASE. 

This  phase  of  geography  has  more  often  been 
styled  "human"  geography,  but  in  the  light  of 
the  recent  movement  in  education  it  seems  very 
appropriate  to  refer  to  it  as  the  social  phase. 

As  has  already  been  said,  this  element  pervades 
the  whole  course  of  elementary  geography.  In 
the  nature  study  work,  where  a  whole  world  of 
things  confronts  the  teacher,  his  basis  for  selec- 
tion must  be,  How  will  this  particular  thing,  if 
taught  the  child,  function  in  his  life?  How  will 
this  knowledge  contribute  to  his  social  efficiency? 
In  pointing  out  suitable  nature  study  materials 
Otis  \V.  Caldwell  enumerates  the  following: 

"Nature  study  materials  should  also  make  pos- 
sible a  large  body  of  knowledge  that  is  useful  in 
the  broadest  sense  of  that  term — knowledge  of 
the  domesticated  animals,  their  ways  (if  living, 
their  use  by  man.  their  histories,  the  selection  and 
care  of  the  best  breeds,  the  regions  where  differ- 
ent ones  thrive  best;  knowledge  of  house  pots ;  of 
wild  animals,  their  relation  to  one  another  and  to 
man;  of  helpful  and  injurious  insects;  knowledge 
of  domesticated  plants,  house  plants,  vegetables 
and    flowering   plants   and   the   gardens   in   which 


PHASES   OF   GEOGRAPHICAL    STUDY  49 

they  grow,  agricultural  plants,  orchard  plants,  nut 
and  fruit  trees  of  the  woods,  lumber  and  its 
sources  and  uses,  poisonous,  medicinal  and  liber 
plants;  plants  and  animals  and  climatic  conditions 
as  soil  makers;  building  stone,  brick,  lime,  sand; 
minerals,  coal,  gas,  oil ;  knowledge  of  factors 
having  to  do  with  public  and  private  health; 
knowledge  of  physical  forces,  of  simple  machines, 
of  the  applications  of  electricity;  of  the  trans- 
formations of  chemistry  and  their  uses  in  indus- 
trial and  household  processes."  Therefore  it  is 
knowledge  useful  in  the  broadest  sense  of  that 
term:  but  what  does  useful  mean?  Things  truly 
useful  enable  one  to  live  better;  and  good  living 
on  the  part  of  one  individual  presupposes  a  help- 
fulness that  enables  others  to  live  better.  And 
this  consideration  of  others  is  always  social.  Is 
it  not  easy  to  discern  that,  in  the  above  list,  all 
of  the  to] »ics  center  about  better  living  both  of 
self  and  others  ? 

In  the  study  of  home  geography  also,  inter- 
dependence is  the  fundamental  idea.  When  we 
study  the  means  by  which  we  ourselves  and  our 
neighbors  arc  fed,  sheltered,  and  clothed,  the  idea 
of  doing  for  others,  of  being  socially  helpful, 
again  appeals  to  us.  So  butcher,  baker,  and  candle- 
stick-maker, each  in  his  own  way.  renders  some 
social  service,  but  the  industry  to  be  geographical 
must  relate  backward  to  the  earth. 

The  whole  field  of  commercial  geography  in- 
volves the  social  factor.  Commerce  is  the  medium 
by   which   peoples   widely   separated   assist    each 


50         THE   TEACHING  OE   GEOGRAPHY 


other  in  living.  The  sustaining  system  of  the 
English  weaver  extends  to  the  Dakota  farmer  who 
raises  his  wheat;  the  Minneapolis  miller  who 
grinds  it ;  the  transporting  companies  which  carry 
the  flour;  and  even  to  the  British  Parliament,  the 
regulating  power,  which  permits  the  flour  to  be 
landed  duty  free  in  Liverpool.  How  intimately 
associated,  then,  are  the  geographical  and  the 
social ! 


SUGGESTIONS   AND   QUESTIONS. 

1.  What     is     the     chief     function     of     observational     geography? 

Psychologically    considered,    is    the    observational    phase    the 
proper  approach  to  the  study  of  geography? 

2.  What  importance  attaches  to   the  idea  of  expression  in   educa- 

tion?    How  does  expression  react  on  the  basic  notions  gained 
through  observation? 

3.  Of    what    importance    are    detailed    accounts    in    the    study    of 

geography?      How    are   they    gained?      Should    they   assist    in 
developing  general  notions? 

4.  What  is  the  meaning  of  rational  geography?     With  what  is  it 

chiefly   concerned,    facts  or   principles?      With   what   grade   of 
pupils  should  the  causal   idea  be  emphasized? 

5.  What    idea   is   at    the   basis   of    the   social   phase    of   education? 

How    does   geography    lend    itself    to    this   aim    of    education? 
(Jive  an  illustration  of  the  serial  phase  of  geography. 

FOR   FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.   Distorted   ideas  and    faulty   notions   are   all   too   general    in    the 

learning  process.     Through  what  methods  can  correct    notions 

be   gained? 
L\    Why    may    descriptive    work    in    geography    fail?       Is    there    a 

period  in  childhood  when   such  work  appeals  strongly? 
'.',.   To  what    extent    do   you    think    the   causal   element    should   enter 

into  tin'  teaching  of  geography  in  the  elementary  schools? 
•\.   To   what   extent   do   you   think    geography   contributes    to    social 


PHASES  OF  GEOGRAPHICAL  STUDY  51 

efficiency  as  an  aim  of  education?  (Read  The  Social  Function 
of  Geography,  Trotter,  Fourth  Year  Hook,  Herbart  Society, 
and  Chapter  III,  Educative  Process,  Bagley.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Committee  of  Ten — Eeport  on  Physical  Geography. 

Davis,  \V.  M. — "Geography  in  the  United  States,"  Proc.  of  the 
Am.  Ass'n.  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  Vol.  LI  1 1.  1904. 

Caldwell.  Otis  W. — "The  Criteria  of  Selection  of  Materials  for 
the  Teaching  of  Nature  Study  and  Geography,"  Pamphlet  of 
the  Northern  Illinois  Teachers'  Association,  Nov.,  1907. 

Bailey,  L.  H—  The  Nature  Study  Idea. 

Harris,  W.  T. — "The  Place  of  Geography  in  the  Elementary 
School,"   The  Forum,  Nov.,   1902. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

The   Relation    of   Geography   to   the   Sciences. 
topics  to  be  considered. 

Geography  a  composite  science;  science  necessary  to  explain  rela- 
tionships;  specialized  science  to  be  avoided. 

Geology  the  basis  of  geography;  dynamical  geology,  a  study  of 
physiographic  processes;   soils  intimately  related  to  life. 

Astronomy;    how  the  sun's  altitude  determines  temperature. 

Influence  of  the  atmosphere  and  its  movements;  how  storms  and 
sudden    weather-changes   affect    the   commercial    world. 

How  physics  and  chemistry  are  involved  in  geography. 

The  biological  sciences;  the  products  of  animal  and  plant  worlds 
the  materials  of  commerce  and  manufacture. 

Mud)  of  agriculture  in  geography.  Leading  educators  (united. 
Necessity   of   a   knowledge   of  science   iu   teaching   geography. 

The  many-sidedness  of  geography  relates  it 
closely  to  various  subjects  of  the  curriculum.  It 
is  a  nucleus  at  which  the  elements  common  to  the 
three  groat  groups  of  science,  viz.,  the  physical, 
biological  and  social,  seem  to  meet.  In  this  sense, 
geography  is  a  field  of  simple  applied  science.  To 
divorce  geography  from  these  science  relation- 
ships robs  it  of  its  richest  content.  For  these  rea- 
sons physiography  is  conceded  to  be  the  best  cor- 
relating subject  in  the  secondary  group.  But  only 
such  elemental  science  should  enter  into  general 
geography  as  is  necessary  to  explain  its  relation- 
ships.    It'  this  principle  is  adhered  to,  the  danger 

52 


RELATION    TO   THE  SCIENCES  53 

of  drifting  into  the  field  of  specialized  science  will 
be  avoided.  The  very  nature  of  the  subject  de- 
mands a  broad  sweep  of  knowledge  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher,  and  the  chief  source  of  failure  in 
geographical  instruction  is  due  to  a  lack  of  breadth 
in  general  scholarship. 

Geology,  to  which  physiography  belongs  as  its 
dynamical  phase,  is  the  very  foundation  of  geog- 
raphy. It  is  inconceivable  that  good  instruction 
can  be  given  by  one  who  has  not  grasped  the  full 
significance  of  the  ''physiographic  processes," 
and  the  elaboration  of  these  processes  builds  up 
physiography  and  dynamic  geology.  There  are 
also  many  minor  principles  and  facts  in  geology 
that  no  comprehensive  treatment  of  geography 
can  omit.  The  value  of  a  knowledge  of  these  prin- 
ciples is  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  "The  Teach- 
er's Preparation." 

The  whole  subject  of  rock  weathering  and  soils 
belongs  both  to  geography  and  geology.  Indeed, 
it  must  be  understood  that  geography  is  a  much 
broader  and  more  significant  term  than  is  geology, 
physiography,  meteorology,  agriculture,  etc.  So 
closely  related  are  life  and  soils  that  our  most 
helpful  writers  on  "home  geography"  include 
chapters  on  the  formation  of  soils. 

The  change  of  seasons  introduces  the  pupil  to 
astronomical  geography.  The  life  zones  of  the 
earth  are  very  largely  dependent  upon  tempera- 
ture. A  study  of  the  sun's  altitude  at  various 
seasons  of  the  year  is  legitimate  geography  when 
studied  as  a  control  over  the  distribution  of  life; 


54         TEE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

it  is  astronomy  when  studied  as  an  end  in  itself. 

Meteorology,  as  a  department  of  geography,  is 
of  great  importance.  Storms,  droughts,  and  sud- 
den changes  in  temperature  affect  the  whole  com- 
mercial world.  The  daily  weather  map  is  the  first 
thing  to  be  considered  by  members  of  the  Board 
of  Trade.  A  continued  strong  south  wind,  by 
checking  the  outflow  of  water  from  Lake  Huron, 
often  delays  the  passage  of  the  larger  vessels 
through  the  straits  at  Detroit.  The  frequent  de- 
struction of  crops  in  the  Dakotas  by  midsummer 
hail  storms  has  led  to  the  organization  of  in- 
surance companies  to  protect  the  producer  of 
farm  crops.  Studied  in  this  light,  meteorology 
and  geography  are  one  and  the  same. 

Physics  and  chemistry  are  so  involved  with  the 
great  fields  of  organic  and  inorganic  nature  that 
argument  and  illustration  to  show  their  relation- 
shifts  to  geography  seem  quite  unnecessary. 
''Were  it  not  for  the  magician  chlorophyll  con- 
juring with  the  sunbeams,"  as  .John  Fiske  puts 
it,  carbon-dioxide  and  water  could  not  unite  and 
make  possible  the  major  portion  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom.  Inertia  and  gravitation  keep  the  earth 
swinging  in  its  orbit,  and  the  whole  process  of 
gradation  and  base-leveling  is  wrought  through 
the  force  of  gravity. 

The    biological    sciences   are   involved    in  geog 
raphy    largely   through    the    arts   and    industries, 
which  employ  animals  and  plants  as  the  raw  ma- 
terial- of  commerce  and  manufacture.    There  are 
few  things  which  civilized  man  has  not  utilized 


RELATION   TO    THE   SCIENCES  55 

for  definite  purposes.  Much  of  school  geography 
is  found  under  the  heads  of  agriculture,  stock- 
raising,  fishing,  dairying,  trucking,  lumbering, 
etc.,  and  the  multitudes  of  products  from  this  or- 
ganic side  of  nature  are  biological  in  origin,  but 
geographical  when  they  direct  the  industries,  dis- 
tribution and  welfare  of  mankind. 

Applied  science  is  today  at  a  premium.  The 
great  interest  in  agriculture  seems  to  be  an  illus- 
tration of  this  fact.  -V  survey  of  the  contents  of 
texts  on  elementary  agriculture  reveals  the  fact 
that  the  subject  matter  is  found  largely  in  botany, 
zoology,  and  geography.  There  is  certainly  no 
innovation  in  the  study  of  soils,  roots,  pollination, 
grafting,  bee-culture,  the  cabbage  worm,  potato 
beetle,  wheat,  corn,  moisture,  and  birds,  simply 
because  these  topics  are  found  in  a  book  entitled 
" Agriculture  for  Beginners."  The  agricultural 
movement  is  in  keeping  with  modern  pedagogy, 
which  maintains  that  culture  and  utility  are  in 
thorough  harmony  with  each  other.  But  it  is  a 
matter  of  application  and  degree  rather  than 
"newness"  of  the  subject-matter.  Reference  is 
here  made  to  agriculture  simply  to  show  that  it 
bears  a  relationship,  and  a  pretty  close  one,  to 
geography.  In  discussing  the  correlations  of 
geography,  Dr.  Charles  Mc  Mimy  makes  the  fol- 
lowing statement : 

"In  some  of  the  principal  schemes  for  corre- 
lating studies,  geography  has  been  regarded  as 
the  mother  study,  the  one  that  would  naturally  be 
the  center  in  any  plan  of  concentration.     .     , 


56  2ii£   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

The  natural  sciences  are  usually  thought  of,  not 
only  as  having  many  intimate  relations  to  geog- 
raphy, but  as  actually  furnishing  a  large  part  of 
the  warp  and  woof  of  geography.  The  minerals, 
vegetables,  animals,  and  all  the  physical  objects 
and  phenomena  of  earth,  air,  and  water  which 
make  up  the  peculiar  realm  of  natural  science 
supply  also  the  subject-matter  of  geography. 
Geography  deals  with  all  these  tilings  from  a 
peculiar  standpoint  which  we  call  the  geograph- 
ical, but  they  are  the  same  materials  which  the 
various  natural  sciences  deal  with,  each  from  its 
own  point  of  view."  And  James  Bryce,  in  dis- 
cussing the  geographical  relationships  of  geog- 
raphy and  science,  says  in  part: 

"All  branches  of  knowledge  which  have  any- 
thing to  tell  us  about  the  earth  more  or  less  hinge 
into  or  are  connected  with  geography,  or  yon  may 
if  you  like,  say  they  diverge  from  it  as  specialized 
departments  of  that  general  knowledge  which  it 
presents  in  its  connection  with  the  whole.  For 
instance,  geography  takes  account  of  the  solid 
crust  of  the  earth.  The  solid  crust  of  the  earth  is 
the  special  subject  of  three  sciences,  geology, 
mineralogy  and  pahrontology,  which  therefore 
diverge  from  geography  as  being  specialized 
branches  of  the  science  which  it  presents  in 
a  general  way.  Then  you  have  a  second  divergent 
branch  in  meteorology  and  oceanography,  dealing 
with  the  phenomena  of  the  air  and  vapor  and  the 
closely  cognate  phenomena  of  the  great  masses  of 
condensed  vapor  which  exist  on  the  surface  of  the 


HE  L  AT  IDS    TO    THE   SCIENCES 


57 


earth  in  the  form  of  oceans.  A  third  branch  is 
that  represented  by  the  sciences  of  botany  and 
zoology,  describing  the  living  creatures  which  find 
their  home  and  their  sustenance  on  the  earth.  A 
fourth,  a  little  more  remote,  consists  of  the  sci- 
ences of  physics  and  chemistry,  which  deal  with 
the  constituents  of  the  globe  and  of  the  forces 
which  move  them.  The  forces  which  you  see  in 
operation  on  the  earth  belong  to  the  science  of 
physics,  and  the  study  of  the  constituent  elements 
of  the  earth,  the  methods  by  which  they  are  ana- 
lyzed and  the  combinations  which  they  form,  be- 


Fi. 


long  to  the  science  of  chemistry.  Even  astronomy, 
although  it  carries  us  beyond  the  limits  of  our  ter- 
restrial globe,  is  really  closely  connected  with  the 
science  of  the  earth,  inasmuch  as  many  terrestrial 
phenomena  are  sensibly  affected  by  the  phenom- 


58         TEE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGSAPET 

ena  which  lie  beyond  the  globe,  and  cannot  be  un- 
derstood without  a  comprehension  of  astronomy. 

"The  whole  of  this  great  group  of  physical 
sciences,  each  of  them  redivided  and  specialized 
into  numerous  branches  and  departments,  springs 
from  geography  as  the  center  of  the  group." 

The  experienced  teacher  is  well  aware  of  the 
correlations  of  geography  and  science.  Scarcely 
a  lesson  but  what  some  necessity  arises  for  the 
explanation  of  science  facts.  The  most  common 
observations  occasion  discussions,  and  "the  fos- 
tering of  a  spirit  of  inquiry"  makes  explanations 
imperative.  In  the  community  is  an  artesian 
well.  The  water  comes  from  a  depth  of  1,800  feet 
and  has  a  temperature  of  about  70  degrees  Fahr. 
It  is  highly  charged  with  hydrogen-sulphide,  and 
emits  a  disagreeable  odor.  Gas  is  seen  to  rise  in 
bubbles  and  escape  from  the  surface.  Iron,  too, 
is  in  solution,  and  "rusts"  containing  vessels. 
Here,  then,  is  an  opportunity,  and  a  rare  one,  for 
nature  study  and  geography  lessons.  Even  young- 
children  will  ask  why  the  water  gushes  out  of  its 
own  accord,  why  it  is  sc  warm,  why  there  are  bub- 
bles in  it,  etc.,  etc. 

Again,  the  local  coal  mine,  which  figures  so 
much  in  the  lives  of  people,  can  hardly  fail  to  pro- 
voke questions  which  lead  us  back  to  historical 
geology  for  satisfactory  explanations.  Then,  too, 
some  coal  is  hard  and  some  is  soft.  What  is  hard 
coal,  and  why  does  it  sometimes  burn  with  a  pale 
blue  flame  and  sometimes  with  a  bright  red  flame? 
Why  is  soft  coal  so  gassy  and  smoky  as  compared 


RELATION    TO    THE   SCIENCES 


59 


A"i til  the  hard !  etc.,  etc.  A  lime  kiln  may  be  in  the 
ricinity,  and  an  excursion  may  stimulate  inquiry 
as  to  why  the  stone  must  "be  burned,'*  what 
change  takes  place,  whore  the  stone  came  from, 
etc.  Certainly,  on  every  hand  science  is  involved 
with  human  life  and  welfare,  and  much  of  geog- 
raphy is  meaningless  unless  accompanied  with 
scientific  explanations. 

Much  elementary  science  can  be  taught  and  of 
necessity  must  be  taught  in  connection  with  geog- 
raphy. This  science  must  not  be  considered  irrel- 
evant, for  it  is  an  integral  part  of  geography. 
Care  must  always  be  taken  not  to  go  beyond  the 
proper  limits  of  geography,  and  the  facts  pre- 
sented should  explain  earth  relations,  and  so  be 
of  use  to  the  individual  in  dealing  with  his  phys- 
ical environment. 

To  ignore  the  involved  science  in  the  study  of 
geography  tends  to  make  the  subject  superficial, 
formal  and  empirical.  If  the  teacher  lias  a  well- 
defined  notion  of  geography,  the  danger  of  irrele- 
vance will  not  be  great.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
added  interest  and  significance  which  will  come 
from  an  understanding  of  causal  or  scientific  rela- 
tionships seem  to  warrant  the  more  thorough 
treatment  which  a  scientific  method  requires. 

If  one  pauses  to  consider  how  the  facts  and 
principles  of  science  enter  into  the  most  common 
of  life's  experiences,  especially  those  that  seem 
to  be  earth-determined,  he  will  readily  admit  its 
practical  value.  The  production  of  a  farm  crop 
involves  a  whole  round  of  science  that  is  clearly 


60         THE   TEACHING   OF   GEOGEAFEY 

geographic.  The  enterprise  first  of  all  makes  a 
consideration  of  climate  fundamental.  A  crop 
must  be  selected  that  can  mature  during  the  grow- 
ing season  and-  which  will  thrive  on  the  amount 
of  moisture  that  may  be  expected.  The  whole 
problem  of  climate  must  at  once  be  reckoned  with, 
and  any  adequate  understanding  leads  us  to  con- 
sider the  facts  of  elementary  science.  Crop  pro- 
duction, again,  is  largely  dependent  on  soils,  and 
the  quality  of  soils,  in  turn,  upon  the  character  of 
underlying  rocks.  But  rock-weathering  is  the  re- 
sult of  many  forces,  some  physical  and  some 
chemical,  that  cooperate  in  the  process  of  soil- 
making.  Xext  must  be  considered  the  drainage, 
which  makes  cultivation  possible.  Hence,  topog- 
raphy plays  its  part.  If  the  slope  is  insufficient 
to  permit  gravity  to  carry  away  accumulated 
water,  then  the  farmer  must  resort  to  ditching  or 
tiling.  On  the  other  hand,  too  great  slopes  may 
cause  rapid  dissection  of  the  lands,  which  the  in- 
genious cultivator  must  check.  The  soil  must  be 
sufficiently  porous  to  absorb  a  goodly  amount  of 
moisture,  and  its  capillarity  must  again  bring  it 
to  the  rootlets  of  the  growing  crop.  By  experi- 
ment the  farmer  must  determine  if  his  field  is 
poor  in  phosphorus  or  nitrogen,  and  the  lacking 
plant  food  must  be  restored.  Careful  study  and 
experiment  must  determine  the  best  time  of  plant- 
ing (quite  regardless  of  the  moon's  phases),  the 
depth  at  which  the  seed  should  be  placed,  together 
with  the  character  and  frequency  of  cultivation 
which  the  growing  plants  seem  to  demand. 


EEL  AT  10  X   10    THE   SCIENCES  01 

And  yet  this  is  but  the  beginning  of  a  homely 
illustration  of  how  the-  earth  and  natural  forces, 
or  science,  enter  into  the  life  of  man.  The  new 
education  attempts  to  explain  such  science  as 
functions  in  life,  and  the  new  geography  is  one  of 
the  media  through  which  education  may  bring 
much  that  is  practical  and  vital  into  the  lives  of 
those  who  study  its  content  and  comprehend  its 
teachings. 


SUGGESTIONS  AND   QUESTIONS. 

1.  Name  all  of  the  sciences  that  enter  into  geography. 

2.  Are  any  of  the  natural  sciences  sharply  differentiated?     Illus- 

trate. 

o.  In  Fig.  1,  point  out  the  knowledge  that  is  common  to  geog- 
raphy and  geology. 

4.  Select  a  topic  from  geography  that  is  also  important  in 
meteorology.  In  which  text  is  it  more  fully  treated?  Why? 
What   is  a  specialized  science? 

0.  Doe?    the    composite   nature   of   geography   prohibit    its   being  a 

science.'      Formulate    a    satisfactory    definition    of    geography. 

FOR   FUETHEK   STUDY. 

1.  Make    an    excursion    to    observe   evidences    of    rock   weathering. 

Write    an    essay    to    show    that    facts    and    laws    of    chemistry 
and  physics  are  here  legitimate  factors  in  geography. 

2.  Kxplain    fully    ''our    summer    season    occurs    during    the    sun's 

highest   altitude.''     The  helior  will  help  in  this  explanation. 

Sre   Chapter  on    "Weather   Study." 
)'..   What   do   ymi   think    the   term   ''earth-science"   should   include? 
•1.   Write   in:    essay   to   show  how   a    £ 1   knowledge   of   geography 

can  1 f  assistance  to  a   farmer. 

F-TULTOCrJAPIIY. 

McMnrry.    ("'litis.    A.— Special   Method   in    Geography,   Chap.    VIII. 
Keltie.   ,T,    S.mtI — Appli/d   Geography. 


(J2         THE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

Mac-Kinder,    II.    J. — ' '  The    Development    of    Geography    Out    of 

Nature  Study."     Ed.  Foundations,   Vol.   16,  p.   194. 
Redway,   J.   W. — "Geographical  Phase   of   Nature  Study."   Proc. 

N.  E.  A..  1900,  p.  411. 
Norton,  W.  II. — "Relations  of  Geology  to  Physical  Geography," 

Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1901,  p.   79(3. 
De  Garmo,  Chas— "  Correlation  of  Studies,"  Ed.  Rev.,  May,  1893. 
Mill,  Hugh  R.— The  Realm  of  Nature. 
Bryce,    James — "The    Importance    of    Geography   in   Education," 

Jour,  of  Geography,  Vol.   1,  Xo.  4. 
Tarr,  R.  S. — New  Physical  Geograpliy,  Chaps.  17,  18,  19. 


CHAPTER  V. 

The  Relation  of  Geography  to  History, 
topics  to  be  considered. 

How  geography  influences   history;    this  influence  ignored   in   the 

past ;    importance  of   geographical  influence  in   history. 
The    case   of    New    England;    brief    geological    history;    glaciation 

and  its  effects;   coast  line;   capes,  bays  and  islands. 
Soils  of   New   England;    agriculture,  the  first  industry;    fitness   of 

the  industry. 
Ship-building  in  New  England;   the  maritime  epoch;   influence  of 

the  Embargo  Act. 
New    England    becomes    a     manufacturing    country;     the    cotton 

industry;    the   wool   industry. 
Present  outlook  for  New  England. 
Geographic    influence    in    Illinois;    glaciation    and    its   effects;    the 

Illinois  river;  the  location  of  LaSalle;  the  anticlinal  fracture. 
Influence    of    the    anticline    on    the    industries    of    LaSalle;    coal; 

St.    Peter's  sandstone;    the   resulting  industries. 
Scenery   near  LaSalle;    pioneer  history;    Starved  Rock. 
Galena   and    Platteville;    lead   and   zinc;    the  smelters   of   LaSalle; 

geographic   influence. 

A  field  of  study,  profitable  and  fascinating-,  is 
that  of  geographic  influence  in  history.  ''The 
unity  of  the  science  of  geography  is  in  geographic 
influence,  i.  e.,  in  the  relations  borne  by  the  phys- 
ical conditions  of  man,  products,  and  industries,  to 
the  distribution  of  wealth,  culture,  and  the  various 
types  of  life"*     Geography  forms  the  basis  of 

*  Pamphlet  :  "Geographic  Influence,  a  Field  for  Invcstiuntion." 
' icorgc  1».  Hubbard. 

63 


64        THE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

history  and  often  determines  its  trend.  Mountains 
and  rivers  direct  the  line  of  march  of  invading 
armies,  and  influence,  at  least,  the  destiny  of  bat- 
tles. Ocean  currents  and  prevailing  winds  guide 
the  courses  of  ships  at  sea.  Mountain  passes  con- 
dition the  settlement  of  distant  plains.  River  val- 
leys indicate  the  lines  of  least  resistance  for  com- 
mercial highways.  Industrial  centers  take  advan- 
tage of  falling  water,  and  castle  and  fortress  seek 
the  eminence  of  hills. 

Investigators  in  both  history  and  geography 
have  made  marked  progress  in  tracing  the  rela- 
tionships of  geography  and  history.  Numerous 
magazine  articles  have  been  written,  and  genuine 
contributions  have  been  made  by  Albert  Perry 
Brigham  and  Ellen  C.  Semple. 

The  teacher  of  geography  must  pave  the  way 
for  the  teacher  of  history,  by  establishing  a  sub- 
stantial geographic  basis.  The  geography,  too, 
must  be  made  significant  through  the  study  of  its 
influence  on  human  affairs.  The  teacher  in  the 
grade  or  rural  school  who  conducts  the  recitations 
in  both  of  these  subjects  has  ;i  line  opportunity  to 
develop  the  relationship,  now  from  the  side  of 
history,  and  again  from  the  side  of  geography. 
As  a  result  of  a  wise  correlation,  both  of  these 
subjects  can  be  much  enriched. 

On  both  large  and  small  scales  the  influence  of 
ueou'raphy  is  seen.  The  writer  remembers  how,  in 
the  district  school,  the  pupils  were  taught  to  asso- 
ciate industries  with  cities.  "  Lynn  was  noted  for 
the   manufacture   of    ladies'    shoes;"   "Bath,  for 


RELATION   TO  HISTORY  Q-> 

ship  building-;"  "Lowell  and  Lawrence  for  cotton 
manufacture,"  etc.  No  thought  ever  occurred  to 
either  teacher  or  pupils  to  discover  why  these  in- 
dustries were  so  distributed.  The  facts  were 
purely  empirical.  The  relationship  that  is  now 
universally  recognized  between  geography  and 
history  is  one  of  significance,  and  is  doing  much 
to  break  down  the  old  empirical  method  of  instruc- 
tion. So  in  their  own  communities,  teachers  would 
do  well  to  discover  as  many  cases  of  geographic 
influence  as  possible,  and  so  to  introduce  in  a  con- 
crete way  the  companionship  of  history  and  geog- 
raphy. .^ 
With  the  many  illustrations  of  those  who  have 
specialized  in  this  held,  it  would  seem  sufficient 
simply  to  point  the  way  to  good  hooks.  But  one  or 
two  examples  may  lie  permissible. 

I.       PHYSIOGRAPHY   AND    INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY    IX    NEW 
ENGLAND. 

That  physiography  controls  industrial  history 
— and  often  political — can  be  illustrated  in  any 
country.  An  illustration,  though  too  brief  to  he 
good,  may  emphasize  industrial  adjustment  better 
than  argument. 

Much  of  Xew  England  was  once  a  sea  bottom. 
It  received  the  sediment  and  waste  of  other  lands. 
The  lifting  of  this  sea-floor  made  the  province 
land,  and  the  crushing  and  folding  of  the  rock 
floor  made  the  mountain-,  the  remnants  of  which 
are  now  the  White  Mountains  of  Xew  Hampshire. 
the  Green  Mountains  of  Vermont,  and  the  Berk- 


,;(;  THE   TEACH IX G   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

shires  of  Massachusetts.  Having  been  lifted  to  a 
great  altitude,  the  ever-active  work  of  water  began 
to  make  even  Alpine  heights  bow  to  the  sea. 
Erosion  caused  deep  dissections  in  the  mountain 
slopes,  and  swiftly  flowing  water,  tilled  with  mate- 
rial in  suspension,  deepened  and  widened  the  chan- 
nels by  corrasion.  The  valleys  widened,  the  cur- 
rents slackened,  small  tributaries  backed  up  the 
divides,  which,  in  turn,  became  narrower.  The 
whole  province  had  begun  to  show  age,  when  the 
cycle  of  change  was  interrupted  by  a  visitor  from 
the  icy  north. 

The  Great  Glacier  having  its  origin  in  Labrador 
and  Greenland  came  slowly  sliding  southward.  It 
was  a  sea  of  ice,  thousands  of  feet  thick.  Slowly 
its  edge  advanced;  it  cared  little  for  the  hills  and 
mountains,  its  great  thickness  burying  all.  Like  a 
great  dull  plane,  it  cut  and  pushed  the  soils  and 
rocks  ahead  of  it,  or  it  ground  the  boulders  be- 
neath into  rock-flour  and  clay.  Sometimes  it 
dipped  into  a  depression,  scooping  it  out  still 
deeper,  and  again  it  ignored  wide  valleys  or 
dropped  its  ponderous  weight  of  rock,  clay  and 
sand  into  the  old  channels  of  streams.  The  glacier 
dipped  into  the  sea.  and,  when  it  melted,  deposited 
meat  moraines  of  sand  and  till.  Cape  Cod,  with 
its  beautiful  beaches  and  cranberry  marshes,  is 
new  land,  formed  by  the  rearranging  of  glacial 
sands  by  off-shore  currents.  Martha's  Vineyard, 
Xantucket,  and  Long  Island  are  terminal  mo- 
raines, and.  when  first  formed,  were  great  hills  of 
drift  on  a  narrow  coastal  plain.  In  many  instances 


RELATION   TO  HISTORY  67 

the  topography  was  completely  changed;  but, 
again,  at  no  remote  distance,  some  granite  hill, 
44  rock-ribbed  and  ancient  as  the  sun,"  lifted  its 
scratched  and  shaven  head  above  the  thick  mantle 
of  drift.  The  receding  glacier  lent  its  water  to  fill 
depressions,  and  so  were  formed  beautiful  lakes, 
which  have  ever  since  given  constant  head  to  the 
rivers.  Their  overflow  followed  ancient  valleys, 
where  not  completely  obliterated,  and  cut  new 
channels  in  the  drift.  The  erosion  of  new  surface 
was  rapid,  especially  as  coastal  margin  began  to 
sink,  causing  greater  fall  and  more  rapid  cur- 
rent.-. Thus  were  laid  bare  the  rocks,  torn,  ground 
and  crushed,  which  have  ever  characterized  New 
England.  Thus  were  born  the  glacial  hills  around 
Boston,  Worcester  and  the  lower  Merrimac,  and 
the  beautiful  drumlins  of  ^Massachusetts  and  New 
York.  Frequently  rivers  found  their  way  around 
these  barriers  of  recent  birth,  and,  tumbling  down 
into  old  channels,  formed  beautiful  falls,  as  at 
Lcwiston,  Lowell  and  Holyoke.  Here  currents 
were  swiftest  and  water  power  best;  here  the  In- 
dians, ascending  the  streams  in  bark  canoes,  were 
compelled  to  stop;  here  their  villages  grew,  and 
here,  later,  the  English  founded  our  modern  cities. 
The  coast  line  of  Xew  England  has  vastly  influ- 
enced her  history.  The  gradual  submergence  al- 
lowed the  sea  to  enter  the  lower,  wider  valleys, 
drowning  them  and  converting  the  river  mouths 
into  broad  estuaries.  Much  of  the  coastal  plain 
became  a  narrow  continental  shelf.  Higher  por- 
tions fringing  the  old  sea  became  isolated,  form 


68  THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

ing  numerous  islands,  of  which  Mt.  Desert  is  a 
type.  The  intrusion  of  the  sea  into  the  valleys 
made  the  water  deep  and  harbors  good.  The  high 
portions  between  river  mouths  became  capes  and 
promontories.  The  enduring  rocks  of  Cape  Ann 
preserved  the  site  of  Gloucester  and  pointed  its 
daring  fishermen  to  the  sea.  Maine's  irregular 
coast,  with  its  reentrant  bays  and  spearhead 
promontories  so  numerous  and  intricate,  has  been 
increased  tenfold. 

The  soils  of  New  England  when  first  explored 
were  thin,  consisting  of  sand,  clay  and  till,  all  well 
mixed  with  glacial  boulders.  Much  of  the  country 
was  well  forested.  The  pine  thrives  well  in  sandy 
soil,  well  watered,  and  in  latitudes  where  there 
are  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  These  conditions 
prevailed  in  northern  Xew  England,  and  here 
"the  murmuring  pines  and  hemlocks"  said  their 
incantations  to  the  sleek  moose  and  the  painted 
savage.  So  was  Xew  England  when  found  by 
English  Puritans.  They  were  slow  to  adapt  them- 
selves to  their  geographic  environment,  and  hence 
their  prosperity  was  curtailed.  Their  industrial 
history  is  almost  a  direct  result  of  physiographic 
processes.  For  a  century  they  sought  prosperity 
in  vain,  through  the  cultivation  of  thin,  barren, 
rocky  hillsides,  and,  says  Kedway — "crops  of 
glacial  boulders  alternated  with  crops  of  trouble." 
Ail  these  years,  geographic  barriers — the  interior 
mountains  and  roadless  forests — had  confined  the 
pioneers  to  the  coastal  belt.  They  at  last  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  ship  building,  and.  as  a  result, 


RELATION  TO  HISTORY  69 

New  England's  deep,  protected  harbors  began  to 
buoy  ii])  the  stately  pines  of  Maine. 

The  Revolutionary  War  abolished  English  re- 
strictions, and  this  inaugurated  New  England's 
first  industrial  revolution.  A  merchant  marine 
sprang  into  existence,  and  New  England  canvas 
floated  on  every  sea.  Days  of  prosperity  followed. 
Bank  accounts  grew:  religious  bickerings  and  per- 
secutions ceased.  But  the  era  of  maritime  pros- 
perity was  soon  over.  The  war  of  1812,  with 
America's  retaliatory  measure,  the  Embargo  Act, 
swept  Now  England's  sails  from  the  seas  never  to 
return;  for.  soon  after  the  war  was  over,  great 
vessels,  driven  by  the  expansive  force  of  steam, 
were  on  hand  ready  to  shriek  defiance  and  derision 
at  ships  rigged  with  mast  and  sail. 

During  Napoleon's  invasion  of  Spain  he  confis- 
cated many  estates,  and  sold  many  flocks  of  fa- 
mous Merino  slice])  to  America.  These  found 
pasturage  on  the  Berkshire  bills  and  Green  moun- 
tains. Importation  being  prevented  by  the  War 
of  IMl!.  New  England's  idle  capital  began  to  build 
mills.  Woolen  goods  were  made  in  large  quanti- 
ties in  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island  and  Con- 
necticut. The  people  had  discovered  another  of 
New  England's  chief  resources— her  water  power. 
In  the  meantime  the  cotton  industry  had  devel- 
oped in  the  south.  New  England  took  advantage 
of  tiii-.  and  soon  the  cotton  industry  was  para- 
mount. Lowell,  Lawrence.  Manchester  and  Con- 
cord owe  their  rapid  growth  to  water  power  and 
brains  in  the  north,  and  cotton  and  slaves  in  the 


70         TEE   TEACHING   OE  GEOGRAPHY 

south.     Prosperity  followed  man's  wise  adjust- 
ment to  physiographic  conditions. 

Xew  England  is  still  a  manufacturing  country. 
The  hemlock  bark  is  used  to  tan  leather.  Boots 
and  shoes  come  from  Lynn  and  Brockton.  She 
has  little  coal,  but  this  is  imported  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  make  light  metal  goods,  as  bicycles 
at  Chicopee  Falls  and  clocks  at  Waterbury.  The 
pulp  of  the  spruce  is  used  in  making  paper  at 
Berlin.  Ships  arc  still  built  at  Bath,  and  the 
lumber  of  the  Pine  Tree  State  is  shipped  from 
Bangor.  The  ancient  limestone  of  Vermont  is 
now  quarried  as  marble  at  Rutland.  At  Quincy 
they  get  the  famous  granite.  Xew  England  has 
always  taken  advantage  of  good  fishing.  But  this 
is  possible  only  through  nature's  accident.  The 
warm  gulf  current  that  circles  Cape  Cod  meets 
a  polar  current,  and  the  waters  are  tempered  for 
cod.  herring  and  mackerel.  But  many  a  cotton 
mill  has  ceased  its  noisy  hum,  and  it  is  only  a 
question  of  time;  when  New  England  must  aban- 
don the  industry  which  has  made  her  famous  for 
nearly  a  century.  The  rapid  growth  of  cotton 
mills  in  the  South  tells  us  in  silent  language1  that 
some  new  industrial  adjustment  awaits  the  toilers 
of  the  bleak  Xew  England  shores. 

Truck-farming  and  gardening  furnish  employ- 
ment near  the  centers  of  population.  Farming, 
proper,  is  decadent.  Many  interior  farms  are  en 
tirely  abandoned,  especially  in  Maine  and  Xew 
Hampshire.  Tobacco  is  grown  in  the  Bed  Sand- 
stone   Vallev    of    the    Connecticut.      The    hills    of 


RELATION   TO  111  STORY  71 

Vermont  furnish  pasturage,  and  St.  Albans  is  a 
dairy  center.  But  the  population  is  drifting  to 
city  and  village,  to  harbor  and  factory.  Phys- 
iographic factors  have  here,  as  elsewhere,  deter- 
mined the  distribution  of  population.  The  people 
have  gone  to  river-valley  and  sea  shore.  Here  are 
the  best  water  power,  excellent  transportational 
facilities,  easy  access  to  fishing  grounds,  and  here 
truck  farmer  and  market  gardener  can  ply  their 
trades  in  more  fertile  valley  or  sandy  beach  and 
enjoy  convenient  markets,  so  essential  to  these 
industries.  The  inhabitants  of  Maine  are  well  to 
the  south;  in  New  Hampshire  they  have  settled 
on  the  Merrimac  and  the  bit  of  coast;  in  Massa- 
chusetts, the  shore  line  and  the  Connecticut  valley 
support  the  densest  population;  while  on  the 
shores  of  Xarragansett  Bay  dwell  over  nine-tenths 
of  the  people  of  Rhode  Island. 

The  character  of  the  soil  has  aided  in  determin- 
ing the  distribution  of  population.  The  thin  soils 
were  soon  exhausted.  The  destruction  of  forests 
assisted  in  devastating  the  lower  valleys.  The 
winter  snows  melted  rapidly,  and  the  deluge  of 
water  swept  debris  of  all  kinds  into  the  lower  val- 
leys, smothering  the  soil  with  heterogeneous  ma- 
terial and  driving  the  farmer  away.  The  steeper 
slopes,  once  farmed,  were  so  eroded  by  the  same 
heavy  rains  and  spring  Hoods  that  all  soils  were 
carried  away.  The  roots  of  struggling  trees  on 
such  lands  follow  along  the  exposed  rock  strata, 
looking  for  places  to  fasten  their  tendrils  in 
mother  earth. 


72  THE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

Everywhere  the  observing  eye  can  discern  an 
industrial  adjustment  to  physiography.  Men  are 
often  slow  to  make  this  adjustment,  but  the  strong- 
hand  of  nature  whips  them  into  line,  or  eventually 
drives  them  from  a  land  where  only  half  a  tillage 
is  possible. 

II.       A  CASE  OF  GEOGRAPHIC  INFLUENCE  OX  INDUSTRIAL 
HISTORY  IX  ILLINOIS. 

The  Illinois  river  follows  the  old,  partially 
drift-filled  channel  of  the  pre-glacial  Illinois.  This 
last  mentioned  stream  was  of  no  mean  size,  being 
from  one  to  two  miles  wide  and  carrying  the  over- 
flow of  the  once  enlarged  Lake  Michigan. 

The  Wisconsin  Glacier,  in  its  retreat,  partially 
filled  with  drift  the  broad,  deep  channel  of  the  pre- 
glacial  Illinois,  and,  as  if  intent  on  obliterating 
the  mighty  river,  it  dropped  the  Valparaiso  mo- 
raine in  the  form  of  a  half  moon,  skirting  the 
south  end  of  Lake  Michigan.  It  thus  delied  the 
lake  waters  to  again  reach  the  Gulf  by  this  route. 

But  the  rains  fell  and  the  run-off  of  northern 
Illinois  and  Indiana  carved  post-glacial  channels, 
steep-sloping  and  narrow,  in  the  soft  drift.  Of 
this  character  are  the  Fox,  Pes  Plaines  and  Kan- 
kakee rivers,  which  now  feed  the  Illinois. 

The  present  Illinois,  with  its  greatly  decreased 
volume,  has  been  unable  to  remove  the  drift  from 
it-  ancestor's  channel,  and  the  river  today  flows 
rather  lazily,  swinging  against  the  bluffs  now  on 
one  side  and  then  on  the  other.  Streams  are  na- 
ture's hiuliwavs  of  commerce,  alonu'  which  villages 


RELATION  TO  HISTORY  't  ;j 

and  cities  are  located  and  begin  their  careers,  be- 
fore the  advent  of  railroad  or  canal.  So  along 
the  Illinois,  towns  and  cities  found  their  locations, 
sometimes  on  the  bottoms  and  sometimes  well  up 
on  the  bluffs,  overlooking  for  miles  the  curves, 
bars  and  islands  in  the  river  below. 

On  a  site  of  the  latter  type  La  Salle.  Illinois, 
found  its  location.  But  nature  had  done  more  to 
block  out  the  industries  which  should  employ  the 
citizens  of  La  Salle,  long  after  the  glaciers  had 
retreated  and  the  buffalo  and  Indian  had  been  ex- 
terminated or  driven  far  to  the  westward.  It  hap- 
pened that  an  upward  fold,  or  anticlinal  fracture, 
as  the  geologist  would  say,  was  formed  across 
northern  Illinois,  beginning  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Freeport  and  extending  in  a  southeastward 
direction,  passing  just  east  of  the  present  site  of 
La  Salle,  on  into  Indiana.  This  slow  upward 
folding  did  not  disturb  the  Rock  and  Illinois 
rivers,  which  cross  it.  They  were  abundantly 
able  to  corrade  their  channels  deeper  and  deeper 
into  the  uprising  strata,  thereby  causing  no  inter- 
ruption of  their  currents,  but  in  the  end  flanking 
their  banks  with  vertical  cliffs  of  white  sandstone, 
of  which  Castle  Rock  and  Starved  Rock  are  his- 
toric examples. 

This  fold  has  served  as  a  geographic  condition 
or  control,  and  has  had  much  to  do  with  the  in- 
dustries of  La  Salle.  Tt  consisted  of  an  upward 
bending  or  arching  of  deep-seated  strata,  forming 
a  broad  ridge.  But  through  the  scouring  of 
glaciers  and  the  erosion  of  water  the  ridire  or  fold 


74         THE    TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

was  planed  off  almost  level  with  the  surrounding 
country,  the  broken  strata  dipping  both  to  the 
cast  and  west  of  the  axial  line  of  the  anticline. 
The  disturbance  brought  to  the  surface  the  coai 
measures,  which  were  left  exposed  as  outcrops, 
and,  in  an  early  day,  attracted  ''drift"  miners  to 
make  settlements  at  and  near  La  Salle.  Also  the 
uplift,  which  increased  the  vertical  distance  be- 
tween bluff  altitude  and  water  level  in  the  river 
below,  stimulated  gradation,  and,  as  a  result,  deep 
gulches  and  ravines  in  time  communicated  with 
the  river,  again  exposing  underlying  seams  of 
coal. 

Forced  to  the  surface,  also,  was  the  St.  Peter's 
sandstone  forming  the  historic  cliff — Starved 
Rock.  This  sandstone  is  the  raw  material  from 
which  glass  is  made,  and  because  (1)  the  coal  was 
immediately  at  hand  to  melt  the  sand,  and  (2)  be- 
cause a  great  commercial  city  was  developing  to 
the  northeast  on  Lake  Michigan,  men  took  ad- 
vantage of  the  situation,  and  La  Salle  became  a 
center  for  the  manufacture  of  bottles.  The  glass 
industry  extended  also  to  (Jttawa  and  Streator  on 
the  east  slope  of  the  anticline,  practically  repeat- 
ing the  conditions.' 

Underneath  the  strata  of  St.  Peter's  sandstone 
lies  the  calciferous  Potsdam.  It,  too,  was  arched 
upward  and  exposed  here  where  the  Illinois  river 
cuts  the  anticline,  it  is  a  notable  fact,  too,  that 
this  formation  is  not  exposed  elsewhere  in  Illinois. 


*  LeConte  defines  an  anticline  as  ;i  lino  on  either  side  of  which  the 
Htrata  repeat  one  another,  dipping  away  from  the  axis.  See  Compend 
of  fit  'il'J'jy,  p.    1  HH. 


BELATIOS    TO   HISTORY  75 

From  the  calcifcrous  Potsdam  excellent  Port- 
land cement  is  made,  and  to  one  who  is  in  posses- 
sion of  this  bit  of  geology  it  is  perfectly  clear  why 
The  Chicago  Portland  Cement  Works  are  located 
in  La  Salle.  The  geographic  conditions  are  as 
follows : 

1.  Raw  material,  the  Potsdam  sandstone. 

2.  Abundance  of  coal. 

3.  Nearness  to  a  great  market,  Chicago. 

4.  Ample  shipping  facilities,  railroads  and  a 
canal. 

The  above  conditions  are  favorable  to  the  in- 
dustry. To  this  may  be  added  the  fact  that  a  wan- 
ton destruction  of  forests  has  made  other  build- 
ing material  necessary.  The  use  of  concrete  is 
one  way  in  which  man  has  adjusted  himself  to 
the  changed  conditions.  From  the  summit  of 
Starved  Pock  a  number  of  cement  plants  can  be 
seen.  Their  existence  is  due  to  one  of  nature's 
freaks,  and  in  an  industrial  way  it  illustrates  geo- 
graphic (geologic)  influence  on  human  affairs,  or 
history. 

By  another  of  nature's  accidents,  the  north- 
western part  of  Illinois  and  the  southwestern  part 
of  Wisconsin  escaped  the  scouring  and  planing  of 
glaciers.  Eroding  and  denuding  agencies,  how- 
over,  removed  the  later  deposits  and  left  exposed 
the  Niagara  limestone,  Cincinnati  shales  and 
Galena  limestone.  Galena,  or  lead  sulphide,  is 
found  in  the  crevices  and  pockets  of  this  deposit. 
Even  the  earlv  settlers  on  farms  far  to  the  south 


7G         THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

used  to  find  profitable  employment  in  winter  by 
"drifting-  into"  the  pockets  exposed  in  the  gulches 
of  this  deeply  sculptured  region.  Galena,  Illinois, 
was  named  for  its  mineral,  and  Platteville,  Wis- 
consin, is  always  associated  with  zinc.  Lut  there 
was  no  coal  in  this  region  to  be  used  in  reducing 
the  ore,  and  following  the  law  that  it  is  cheaper  to 
take  crude  ore  to  the  coal  iields  than  to  transport 
coal  to  the  ore,  the  valuable  ores  of  the  southern 
part  of  the  Driftless  Area  in  an  early  day  found 
their  way  to  J. a  Salle,  where  coal  was  plentiful 
and  where  communication  by  rail  and  water  had 
been  established  with  Chicago.  Then,  too,  La 
Salle  lay  between  Chicago  and  the  productive  zinc 
Iields  of  Joplin,  Missouri,  and  those  of  eastern 
Kansas.  The  coal  Iields  soon  attracted  this  ore, 
and  La  Salle's  zinc-smelting  and  manufacturing 
industry  grew  as  a  result  of  geographic  control. 
Nor  was  this  all.  The  sulphur  had  to  be  removed 
from  the  zinc-sulphide,  and  this  fact  led  to  the 
establishment  of  large  plants  for  the  manufacture 
of  commercial  sulphuric  acid  as  a  by-product.  The 
industries  of  La  Salle  are  directly  attributable  to 
this  diastrophic  movement  of  the  earth's  crust, 
which  lifted  the  coal  measures  several  hundred 
feet  and  exposed  the  early  Silurian  deposits, 
making  mining  easier  and  more  profitable,  and 
furnishing  abundant  material  for  the  manufacture 
of  glass  and  cement.  The  abundance  of  coal  at- 
tracted the  zinc  ore,  and  the  smelting  plants  now 
in  operation  are  among  the  largest  in  the  Lnited 
States.     So  important  are  natural  resources  that 


RELATION  TO  HISTORY  77 

several  railroads  and  a  canal  at  an  early  date  com- 
peted for  this  traffic 

But  geographic  influence  does  not  stop  with  in- 
dustrial history.  Political  history  is  largely 
shaped  by  resources  and  industries.  La  Salle's 
industries  attracted  foreigners  of  varied  nation- 
alities. The  question  of  municipal  government 
even  in  a  small  city  becomes  an  important  social 
problem.  There  is,  too,  an  esthetic  shie  to  the  La 
Salle  problem.  The  deep  dissection  of  the  uplifted 
region  across  from  La  Salle  has  produced  perhaps 
the  most  picturesque  scenery  in  Illinois.  It  is  of 
such  marked  beauty  that  it  is  now  planned  to  pur- 
chase the  region  and  set  it  apart  for  a  state  park. 
It  abounds  in  hills,  valleys,  gulches,  canons,  water- 
falls and  caves,  making  Deer  Park  a  rare  region 
for  the  student  of  nature.  But  here  again  geo- 
graphic influence  is  seen.  The  picturesque  is  a 
control  over  the  economic.  Railroads,  trolleys, 
ferries,  hotels  and  hacks  are  busy  because  an  anti- 
clinal fracture  and  sculptural  gradation  gave  to 
La  Salle  this  region  of  beaut}'. 

The  study  of  French  exploration  has  firmly  as- 
sociated the  heroic  La  Salle  and  his  devoted  Tonti 
with  this  region,  though  the  busy  little  city  that 
bears  the  name  of  the  indomitable  Frenchman 
may  be  unknown  to  many.  Even  in  savage  times 
geographic  conditions  played  their  role  in  history. 
So  Starved  Lock — the  inaccessible  citadel,  at- 
tracted the  weakened  tllini,  and  here  they  per- 
ished from  hunger  or  were  mercilessly  butchered 
by  the  Pottowattamies  in  their  effort  to  escape. 


;y         THE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

The  story  of  La  Salle  could  be  repeated,  with 
necessary  variations,  for  many  another  city.  What 
better  example  of  genuine  educational  work  than 
that  of  teaching-  in  the  fulness  of  their  relation- 
ships, local  history  and  geography? 


SUGGESTIONS   AND   QUESTIONS. 

1.  What    physiographic    conditions    make    New    England    a    good 

manufacturing  country  ? 

2.  What    are    the    effects    of    glaciation    in    New    England?      Why 

is   New   England   not   well   adapted   to    agriculture? 
;;.   Why  do  good  harbors  abound  in  New  England?     What  led  to 

the  maritime  epoch?     Why  was  it  so  successful? 
4.   What  natural  conditions  led  to  the  introduction  of  the  textile 

industries? 
'>.  What    part    have   rapids   and   water-falls    played    in   the   indus- 
trial history  of  New   England? 
(S.   What    natural   conditions   favored   the   introduction  of  smelters 

at    LaSalle? 
7.  Account    for   the   Portland   cement   and   glass   industries   in   the 

vicinity  of  LaSalle. 
"5.   How    was    Starved    Hock    formed    and    how    has    it    figured    in 

history? 

EOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  Account,   if   possible,   for  the   first   settlement    in   your  locality. 

Was  it  determined  by  physiographic   conditions? 
i'.   Trace  the  course  of  some  railroad   through  your  county.     Does 

it    follow  a  stream  or  a  divide?     Why? 
:;.    The   early   settlements   in    the   prairie   plains   were   usually  made 

along    the    streams.      Why?      Does    your    local    history    verify 

this  statement? 
-1.    What    part  have  mines   played   in   determining  the  locations  of 

settlements  and  cities? 
~>.   Did    the    county    in    which    you    live    suffer    glaciatioH?      If    so, 

what    evidences   of   glaciation   can   you   cite? 


RELATION   TO  HISTORY  79 

(i.   What    determines  the   present   industries   of   your  locality? 
7.    Read  the  ''Story  of  a  Stone,'"  a   fascinating  science  sketch  by 
David  Starr  Jordan.     See  volume  entitled  Science  Sketches. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Worthen,  Amos  Henry — Economic  Geology  of  Illinois. 

I.e  Conte,  Joseph — Brief  Course  in  Geology. 

Chamberlain  and  Salisbury — Chicago  and  Its  Environs. 

Parkman,    Francis — LaSalle  and   The  Great   West. 

Brigham,   A.    1*. — Geographic  Influences   in   American   History. 

Semple.  Fllen  C. — American  History  and  Its  Geographic  Con- 
ditions. 

Mather.   \.   F. —  The  Making  of  Illinois. 

17.   S.   Geological   Survey— "The   Ottawa   Sheet." 

Red  way,  J.  W. — "Influence  of  Environment  on  the  Development 
or  U.  S.  History."     Report  X.   F.  A.,  1S9S. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

Aims  or  Geographical  Study. 

TOPICS   TO   BE   CONSIDERED. 

Aims  as  stated  by  leading  educators;  aims  fall  in  two  categories; 
which    is   tenable? 

Adjustment  to  environment  as  an  aim  in  geography;  place  adjust- 
ment;   economic    adjustment;    political    or   social    adjustment. 

Introductory  and  correlative  aims;  geography  holds  a  central  posi- 
tion in  science;  it  may  be  presented  as  an  introduction  to  the 
natural  sciences,  or  as  a  unifying  or  correlating  principle  fol- 
lowing the  other  sciences. 

How  much  practical  value  has  geography;  the  broad  meaning  of 
practical. 

Culture  aim  of  geography;  travel  as  a  means  of  gaining  culture; 
(vhy  geography  can  contribute  to  culture. 

I.       AS    DEFINED    BY   LEADING    EDUCATORS. 

The  very  nature  of  tlie  subject  lias  led  to  the  ex- 
pression of  many  aims  or  ends  to  which  an  intel- 
ligent study  should  load.  To  begin  with,  any  sub- 
ject must  contribute  to  the  general  aim  of  educa- 
tion, whatever  that  may  be,  besides  having  specific 
values  of  its  own.  Geography,  then,  in  its  aims 
and  purposes,  must  conform  to  a  rational  peda- 
gogy; it  must  lend  itself  in  large  measure,  in  con- 
junction with  the  other  studies  of  the  curriculum, 
toward  the  fitting  of  the  individual  to  cope  suc- 

00 


A  IMS   OF  GEOGBAFHICAL  STUDY  81 

eessfully  with  his  physical  and  social  environ- 
ment. The  "new  geography"  is  a  recognition  of 
the  relation  between  life  and  environment,  and 
the  aim  becomes  that  of  studying  those  tilings 
which  contribute  most  to  the  highest  development 
of  the  highest  form  of  life. 

"The  essential  in  geography  is  a  relation  be- 
tween the  elements  of  terrestrial  environment  and 
the  items  of  organic  response;  this  being  only  a 
modernized  extension  of  letter's  view.  Every- 
thing that  involves  such  a  relationship  is  to  that 
extent  geographic.  Anything  in  which  such  a  re- 
lationship is  wanting  is  to  that  extent  not  geo- 
graphic The  location  of  a  manufacturing  village 
at  a  point  where  a  stream  affords  water  power  is 
an  example  of  the  kind  of  relation  that  is  meant, 
and  if  this  example  is  accepted,  then  the  reason- 
able principle  of  continuity  will  guide  us  to  in- 
clude under  geography  every  other  example  in 
which  the  way  that  organic  forms  have  of  doing 
thing-  is  conditioned  by  their  inorganic  environ- 
ment.'' The  foregoing  statement  by  TV.  M.  Davis 
points  us  to  the  true  meaning  of  geography. 

James  Bryce,  in  the  April,  1902,  number  of  the 
"Journal  of  Geography,"  gives  the  following 
categories  : 

1.  Geography  is  the  foundation  or  starting 
point  of  '"human  studies" — literature,  his- 
tory, economies,  sociology,  etc. 

L!.     Practical  Training  in  Observation. 

.'1.     Training  in  Kellection. 


82         THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

4.     Pleasure   which   knowledge   of   the   subject 
adds  to  travel. 

Richard  Elwood  Dodge,  in  '"Teachers'  College 
Record"  for  March,  1901,  gives  the  following 
aims : 

1.  Knowledge  —  understanding    geographical 

conditions. 

2.  Power — ability    to    think    clearly    and    ac- 
curately. 

3.  Interdependence — study    of    inter-relations 

of    peoples     and    individuals,     and     inde- 
pendence of  all. 

4.  Citizenship — ability  to  combat  successfully 
with  social  and  physical  environment. 

In  more  general  terms  TV.  T.  Harris  states  the 
aims  of  school  subjects  as  follows:"  ''The 
branches  of  study  pursued  in  the  elementary 
schools  are  chosen  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
two  useful  and  reasonable  ends.  In  the  first  place, 
they  are  chosen  to  give  the  child  an  ability  to  un- 
derstand his  environment  and  to  come  into  a 
mastery  of  it,  so  that  he  may  make  it  useful  to 
himself.  He  is  taught  arithmetic  in  order  that  he 
may  divide  and  conquer;  in  order  that  he  may 
measure  the  things  and  forces  of  his  environment, 
and  learn  how  to  adapt  one  set  of  them  to  control 
and  utilize  another,  fie  is  taught  geography  in 
order  that  he  may  understand  the  causal  relations 
existing  between  his  habitat,  or  the  place  in  which 

»  fJr-f  "Forum."  January,   1002. 


AIMS  OF  GEOGRAPHICAL   STUDY  s3 

he  lives,  and  other  places,  as  well  as  other  systems 
of  things  and  events  on  the  earth. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  second  reason  for  adopt- 
ing a  branch  in  the  course  of  study  is  that  it  de- 
velops some  faculty  or  power  in  the  child,  and 
gives  him  possession  of  himself  in  that  respect; 
for  one  of  the  primary  objects  is  to  develop  the 
intellect,  the  memory,  the  judgment,  or  the  heart. 
By  the  expression  heart  I  mean  the  aggregate  of 
affections  and  inclinations  of  the  soul.  Some  dis- 
cipline in  school,  like  writing,  drawing,  calis- 
thenics, or  manual  training,  finds  its  place  in  the 
curriculum  because  of  its  power  to  develop  the 
will,  the  tenacity  of  purpose,  the  ability  to  pay 
long  and  continuous  attention  to  one  thing,  and 
to  form  habits  of  industry,  cleanliness,  regularity, 
and  punctuality,  and  thus  acquire  those  virtues 
which  make  a  man  a  better  citizen  than  he  could 
possibly  be  without  them — which  make  his  service 
of  more  value  to  his  fellow-men,  and  give  him  the 
ability  to  get  a  larger  share  of  service  from  them 
than  he  otherwise  could." 

Professor  E.  II.  AYhitbock  submits  the  following 
thesis:*  "The  primary  aim  in  teaching  ele- 
mentary geography  is  to  give  facts  that  are  likely 
to  be  useful  in  practical  life;  to  differentiate  be- 
tween things  which  are  fundamental  and  those 
which  are  only  incidental;  and  so  to  impress  the 
fundamental  that  they  shall  become  a  permanent 
possession  of  the  pupil." 

The  advocates  of  the  "new  geography"  recog- 

*  Proc  x.  [•:.  a.,  ioiix,  p.  '.<:•_•. 


Si         TEE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

nize  its  practical  value.  That  geography  can 
be  useful  in  the  life  of  an  individual  or  race  is  evi- 
dently accepted  by  the  Paris  Commercial  Geog- 
raphy Society,  the  aim  of  which  according  to  its 
report  is : 

1.  "To  place   science   at  the   disposal  of  com- 

merce, and  to  put  theory  in  practice; 

2.  uTo    aggrandize    France   by   developing  in- 

dustry and  commerce  abroad; 

3.  "To   receive   and   sift  information  from  all 

parts  of  the  world,  and  store  up  facts  which 
may  be  freely  drawn  upon  by  all  who  can 
turn  them  to  good  account,  whether  for 
commerce  or  for  theoretical  study; 

4.  "To  extend  the   study  of  everything  which 

promotes  agriculture,  manufacture  or 
trade,  both  at  home  and  in  the  colonies; 

5.  "To  sliow  the  mass  of  the  people  that  they 

are  interested  in  the  products,  export  and 
import,  of  their  own  and  other  countries, 
and  that  knowledge  leads  to  foresight,  and 
foresight  lead.-  to  power." 

A  consideration  of  the  "aims"   of  geography 

teaching,  as  stated  by  educators,  reveals  the  fact 
tl  a1  they  fall  into  two  categories,  viz:  those  who 
have  for  their  object  the  disciplining  of  the  mind, 
and.  second,  those  whose  purpose  it  is  to  acquaint 
the  pupil  with  his  environment  and  teach  him  its 
ii-c  The  aims  which  can  be  consistently  included 
':.  the  second  category  are  rational  and  tenable; 
but    those  in   the   first,  considered   in   the  light  of 


AIMS  OF  GEOGRAPHICAL   Hl'L'Dl'  85 

modern  psychology,  are  irrational  and  untenable. 
If  training  in  one  field  of  learning  could  carry 
over  and  explain  problems  in  new  fields  of  an  en- 
tirely different  character,  then,  perhaps,  we  might 
justify  mental  training  as  an  aim  of  any  depart- 
ment of  education,  as.  for  example,  geography. 
This  not  being  the  case,  we  can  indorse  only  those 
aims  which  are  directly  and  vitally  concerned  in 
pre] taring  the  child  for  active  life.  Mental  train- 
ing must  be  incidental. 

In  .lames  Bryce's  enumeration  of  aims,  the 
value  of  geography  as  a  foundation  for  history, 
literature,  sociology  and  economics  is  at  once  ap- 
parent, as  those  subjects  lead  to  an  understanding 
of  human  institutions  and  human  nature.  We 
•  •annot  subscribe  to  the  training  of  the  perceptive 
and  reflective  powers  per  sc  except  in  the  sense 
above  stated.  The  additional  pleasure  which  a 
reader  or  traveler  can  obtain  through  a  knowledge 
of  the  earth,  its  people  and  institution.-,  is  suffi- 
cient reason  for  its  study.  If  more  of  the  es- 
thetic entered  into  the  education  of  the  poor,  espe- 
cially, their  lives  would  not  only  be  better  but 
happier. 

The  aims  as  stated  by  Professor  Dodge  can  be 
interpreted  so  as  to  make  them  the  legitimate  ob- 
ject.- of  geographical  study.  They  are  briefly  but 
clearly  set  forth  in  the  "Teachers'  College  Rec- 
ord" of  March.  11)01. 

I  >r.  I  larris  make-  the  understanding  of  environ- 
ment an  important  aim  of  all  studies,  and  espe- 
cially   of    the    study    of   geography.      [lis    second 


m;  the  teaching  of  geography 

statement,  however,  seems  to  suggest  rather  too 
strongly  the  doctrine  of  formal  discipline.  The 
idea  of  individual  efficiency  to  the  end  that  one 
may  be  of  service  to  his  fellows  is  fully  in  accord 
with  the  modern  movement  of  "social  efficiency" 
as  the  aim  of  education. 

IT.       GEOGRAPHY  IN  THE  LIGHT  OF  ADJUSTMENT  TO  EN- 
VIRONMENT. 

The  educational  principle  which  determines  all 
values  must  be  more  clearly  recognized.  It  is  the 
principle  of  ''adjustment,"  which  means  that  the 
individual  must  be  adapted  to  his  environment; 
must  be  able  to  make  use  of  it  for  protection,  sus- 
tenance, fuller  development,  and  happiness.  This 
is  the  view  of  Spencer,  G.  Stanley  Hall,  M.  V. 
O'Shea,  Frederick  E.  Bolton,  Edward  L.  Thorn- 
dike  and  others.  On  this  principle  must  be  deter- 
mined not  only  the  value  of  geography  but  of 
every  study  in  the  school  curriculum. 

No  one  is  educated  who  has  not  a  fairly  good 
fund  of  geographical  facts  and  a  reasonably  clear 
notion  of  the  science  necessary  to  their  under- 
standing. The  transactions  of  everyday  life  de- 
mand a  knowledge  of  place.  One  must  locate  per- 
sons and  places  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy, 
both  with  relation  to  himself  and  with  relation  to 
other  fixed  places,  or  his  view  of  things  will  be 
much  distorted.  Every  nation  is  dependent,  and 
as  such  must  know  where  other  nations  dwell, 
what  of  excess  they  produce,  what  they  themselves 
cannot   produce,  what  terms  for  exchange  can  be 


AIMS  OF  GEOGRAPHICAL   STUDY  g? 

effected,  and  what  routes  and  modes  of  carriage 
can  be  resorted  to.  It  is  impossible  to  conceive  of 
a  civilized  community  without  international  rela- 
tions, and  hence  an  educated  people  must  under- 
stand these  relations  and  have  clear  conceptions 
of  foreign  countries  and  foreign  peoples.  James 
Bryce  emphasizes  strongly  the  additional  pleasure 
that  comes  to  travelers  who  have  made  a  study  of 
the  country  through  which  they  are  passing. 
Tourists  invariably  study  the  geography  of  the 
region  they  expect  to  visit,  before  starting  on 
their  journey.  Indeed,  it  is  often  said  that  one 
can  gain  a  liberal  education  through  travel.  The 
truth  of  this  lies  in  the  fact  that  travel  places  the 
individual  in  so  many  and  in  such  complex  situa- 
tions that  he  learns  to  adjust  himself  to  new  con- 
ditions without  great  inconvenience  or  embarrass- 
ment. 

A  place  adjustment  is  one  of  the  first  to  be 
noted,  and  this  fact,  no  doubt,  has  led  to  the  over- 
emphasis of  locative  geography.  That  physiog- 
raphy has  much  to  do  in  determining  the  distri- 
bution of  population  can  be  instanced  almost  any- 
where. Salubrious  climates,  rich  soils  and  natural 
roadways  have  had  much  to  do  in  determining 
density  of  population.  Cities  thrive  on  seaboards 
where  sinking  coasts  permit  the  ocean  waters 
to  encroach  upon  the  lower  river  valleys,  afford- 
ing deep  and  quiet  waters  for  harbors.  Lake 
cities  develop  rapidly  where  there  are  navigable 
waters  from  the  lake  to  the  sea,  and  where  the 
topography,  soils,  temperature  and  rainfall  favor 


88  TEE   IE AC JUS G  OF  GEOGBAFEY 

agricultural  pursuits  in  the  surrounding  region, 
or  where  the  lake  shore  rocks  abound  in  valuable 
minerals.  Chicago  is  an  example  of  the  first  kind 
and  Duluth  of  the  second  kind.  Cities  also  find 
their  location  and  owe  their  growth  to  breaks  in 
transportation  occurring,  at  the  head  of  naviga- 
tion of  rivers,  or  at  the  entrance  of  mountain 
passes.  St.  Paul  is  located  at  the  head  of  naviga- 
tion of  the  Mississippi  river,  and  Denver  is  often 
called  a  "mountain  gate"  city.  Thriving  cities 
often  mid  their  location  at  river-falls,  which  offer 
excellent  water  power,  and  at  the  same  time  de- 
termine the  head  of  navigation.  In  general,  breaks 
in  navigation  determine  the  location  and  influence 
the  development  of  cities. 

As  already  stated,  soils,  temperature  and  mois- 
ture have  much  to  do  in  determining  the  distribu- 
tion of  population.  If  all  of  these  conditions  are 
favorable,  dense  population  may  be  expected.  If, 
however,  any  one  of  these  conditions  is  decidedly 
unfavorable,  it  may  restrict  very  largely  the 
density  of  population.  Many  parts  of  Arizona 
would  be  very  productive  if  there  were  sufficient 
rainfall,  but  owing  to  a  scarcity  of  moisture  this 
condition  outweighs  all  other  conditions  which  in 
themselves  may  be  favorable.  The  Prairie  Plains 
support  a  dense  population  because  the  conditions 
individually  seem  to  favor  the  life  and  activities 
of  man.  Soils,  also,  are  very  potent  factors.  The 
fine  silt  deposited  in  old  Lake  Agassi/  now  forms 
the  rich  soils  and  level  surface  of  the  I\ed  River 
Valley  and  forms  tlie  highly  productive  soils  now 


AIMS  OF  GEOGRAPHICAL  STUDY  89 

sought  eagerly  by  thousands  of  ambitious  home- 
seekers.  In  contrast  to  this  may  be  mentioned 
the  abandoned  farms  of  New  Hampshire,  where 
long  cultivation  has  exhausted  the  productivity 
of  the  soils,  or  where  the  slopes  have  caused  a 
run-off  so  rapid  that  the  liner  soils  have  been  car- 
ried to  the  lower  valleys  or  even  to  the  sea,  thus 
Leaving  the  hillside  farms  too  unproductive  to 
warrant  their  cultivation.  The  inhabitants  in 
such  cases  have  gone  to  the  factory  towns  or  cities, 
where  their  labor  brings  better  returns.  In  this 
case,  physiographic  conditions  play  a  double  role: 
unfavorable  conditions,  on  one  hand,  tend  to  drive 
the  inhabitants  from  agricultural  pursuits,  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  a  manufacturing  industry  made 
possible  by  navigable  streams  and  waterfalls  in- 
vites them  to  enter  a  new  field  of  industry.  In- 
stances could  easily  be  multiplied.  It  is  sufficient 
to  say  that,  excluding  the  influence  of  economic 
geology  and  the  economic  relationship  which  pro- 
ductive areas  bear  to  cities  and  other  densely  pop- 
ulated regions,  place  adjustment  is  determined 
almost  wholly  by  physiographic  conditions. 

There  is  an  adjustment,  geographical  in  its  na- 
ture, which  is  brought  about  if  not  independently 
at  least  indirectly  of  physiographic  conditions.  It 
is  that  relationship  which  exists  between  pro- 
ductive and  consumptive  areas,  and  which  seems 
to  grow  out  of  the  needs  and  demands  of  a  city  or 
a  densely  populated  region,  as  related  to  the  needs 
and  demands  of  the  immediately  adjacent  coun- 
try.     i't'    course,    the    same    principle    works    at 


90  I'HE   TEACHING   OF   GEOGRAPHY 

great  distances,  but  since  the  operation  of  the 
principle  can  be  seen  more  plainly  at  short  range, 
our  illustrations  will  be  chosen  accordingly.  Rural 
communities  adjacent  to  large  cities  usually 
devote  themselves  to  supplying  urban  needs.  Re- 
stricted areas  demand  intensified  industries.  In 
such  cases  the  controlling  principle  is  economic 
rather  than  physiographic.  The  region  about 
Chicago,  for  instance,  is  given  up  largely  to  truck- 
ing and  dairying.  Elgin,  Illinois,  so  noted  as  a 
dairy  center,  derived  its  original  impulse  from 
Chicago,  though  its  product  now  is  widely  dis- 
tributed. A  trip  from  Chicago  to  Milwaukee  con- 
vinces us  of  the  importance  of  trucking.  Hence, 
we  see  readily  that  the  industries  are  sometimes 
dependent  upon  population  centers,  and  are  not, 
in  such  cases,  largely  determined  by  physio- 
graphic factors.  Regions  remote  from  important 
markets  and  equally  well  adapted  for  the  produc- 
tion of  grain  or  stock  usually  market  a  much 
larger  ratio  of  stock  than  of  grain.  The  reverse  is 
often  true  of  similar  regions  located  near  great 
markets. 

Commercial  geography  concerns  itself  very 
largely  with  the  operation  of  economic  laws  which 
are  so  important  that  valuable  contributions  to  the 
subject  are  appearing  under  the  caption  of  "Eco- 
nomic Geography." 

Thus  it  may  be  seen  that  one  of  the  aims  of 
geography  is  to  trace  out  certain  of  these  eco- 
nomic relationships  or  adjustments. 

In    addition    to    the    adjustments    above    men- 


AIMS  OF  GEOGRAPHICAL   STUDY  <Jl 

tioned,  [here  seems  to  be  a  political  or  social  ad- 
justment which  plays  its  part  especially  in  com- 
mercial geography.  The  legal  commercial  rela- 
tionships which  exist  between  different  countries 
have  much  to  do  in  controlling  the  industries  of 
the  countries,  and  the  tariff  laws  in  any  country 
have  much  to  do  with  the  manufacturing  and 
transporting  industries.  To  understand  fully 
what  people  are  doing  in  any  country,  and  why 
they  are  so  engaged,  one  must  certainly  take  into 
consideration  physiographic,  economic,  social  and 
political  conditions. 

III.       INTRODUCTORY   AND    CORRELATIVE   ATMS. 

Reference  has  been  made  under  the  definition  of 
geography  to  its  relation  to  other  subjects.  It 
occupies  a  central  position;  the  other  branches 
''diverge  from  it  as  specialized  departments." 
Such  being  the  relation,  geography  affords  the 
only  true  basis  for  the  study  of  natural  science. 
For  this  reason  it  is  urged  that  the  rational  ele- 
ment, the  science  phase,  should  receive  due  em- 
phasis, inasmuch  as  the  large  majority  of  pupils 
will  never  have  the  advantage  of  secondary  in- 
struction in  these  specialized  departments.  Tn 
this  case,  geography  will  give  the  pupil  a  general 
view  of  the  earth-phenomena  with  which  ele- 
mentary education  so  largely  deals;  and.  if  he 
enter  the  high  school,  it  will  serve  as  an  introduc- 
tion to  the  physical  and  biological  sciences.  Per- 
haps this  view  accounts  for  the  appearance  of  the 
physical  geography  in  the  freshman  program  of 


92         THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

most  high  schools.  Educators  hold  that  it  thus 
furnishes  a  radiating  center  from  which  the  pupil 
may  proceed  understandingly.  Others  advocate 
the  teaching  of  physical  geography  in  the  senior 
year  of  the  secondary  school,  on  the  ground  that 
the  study  will  serve  the  important  function  of 
tying  together,  unifying  and  organizing  the  in- 
formation gained  from  other  sources,  thus  making 
all  more  definite  and  significant. 

IV.       THE  PKACTICAL  VALUE  OE  GEOGRAPHY. 

Xo  one  will  challenge  the  practical  value  of 
geography.  But  if  we  accept  the  narrow  meaning 
of  "practical,"  geography  is  limited  in  its  appli- 
cation quite  largely  to  immediate  environment. 
Home  geography  is  very  important.  There  are 
also  many  facts  of  geography  that  are  of  this 
practical  value  to  individuals  engaged  in  the  com- 
mercial industry.  If,  however,  we  accept  the 
broader  meaning  of  practical,  there  can  be  no 
question  concerning  the  value  of  geography.  It 
has  been  pointed  out  repeatedly  in  this  volume 
that  the  many  points  of  contact  between  geog- 
raphy and  life  make  this  subject  of  distinct  value 
in  the  educational  process.  Since  practical  value. 
in  both  senses,  has  been  assumed,  no  further  dis- 
cussion will  here  be  indulged  in. 

V.       THE   .'TETrTtE  ATM  OE  GEOGRAPHY. 

Heretofore  in  our  discussions  we  have  dealt 
with  the  concrete  and  practical  side  of  the  subject, 
fioography,  especially    mature   geography,  has   a 


AIMS  OF  GEOGRAPHICAL  STUDY  93 

very  high  cultural  value.  If  culture  is  to  be  held 
up  as  an  aim  of  education,  geography  will  theu 
come  in  for  an  important  place.  Any  subject  that 
has  so  many  phases  and  which  enters  into  so  many 
of  the  avenues  of  life  cannot  fail  to  contribute 
much  that  is  cultural.  This  statement  may  not 
appeal  to  those  who  have  made  little  or  no  study 
of  geography ;  but  those  who  believe  that  educa- 
tion is  an  adjustment  to  environment,  physical 
and  social,  and  who  have  pursued  the  study  until 
the  breadth  and  richness  are  apparent,  readily 
concede  its  cultural  value.  Furthermore,  geog- 
raphy includes  so  much  of  science  and  is  so  closely 
related  to  history,  literature  and  economics,  that 
its  cultural  value  is  very  evident.  Many  students 
of  geography  assert  that  there  is  no  subject  that 
has  dene  more  to  broaden  their  intellectual  out- 
look and  to  deepen  their  appreciation  of  nature 
and  life  generally  than  has  the  study  of  geog- 
raphy. 


SUGGESTION'S    AND   QUESTIONS. 

1.  What   is  the  present  day  aim  of  education?     Should  geography 

contribute   to    thin   general   aim? 

2.  What.  then,  is  the  chief  purpose  of  teaching  geography? 

3.  To   what   extent   ought   the  practical  aim  to   dominate   in   geog- 

raphy teaching?     The  cultural? 

4.  What  seems  to   be  the  consensus  of  opinion  of  educators  as  to 

the  aim  of  geography  teaching?     Quote  several  writers. 

5.  Illustrate  the  value  of  a  knowledge  of  geography  to  a  farmer 

living  near  a   large  city.     To  a  merchant    in  the  city.     What 
sort    of   geographical   knowledge  do   transportation  companies 


94         THE   TEACHING   OF  GE0GRAPH1 

FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  Waste  in  education  is  very  largely  the  result  of  aimless  teach- 

ing. Try  for  a  time,  at  least,  to  justify  each  lesson  that  you 
teach.  If  you  do  this,  you  must  have  .some  basis  for  selection. 
Thus  will  the  aim  of  education  in  general  and  of  geography  in 
particular,  force  themselves  upon  you. 

2.  Observe  lessons  in  geography  and  compare  the  genuine  thought- 

work  with  that  of  memorized  statement.  Which  predominates? 
Why?     Which  is  more  valuable?     Why? 

3.  What  percent  of  the  geography  which  you  learned  in  school  nas 

been  of  use  to  you  in  your  life  experiences? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Hutchinson,    Lincoln — "A    Plea    for    a    Broader    Conception    of 

Economic  Geography, "  Jour,  of  Geog.,  Nov.,  1907. 
Whitbeck,  R.   II. — "Geography  in  the  Elementary  School,"  Proc. 

X.  E.  A.,  1908,  p.  971. 
Harris,    W.    T. — "The    Place    of    Geography    in    tin;    Elementary 

School,"  The  Forum,  Jan.,  1902. 
McMurry,    C.    A. — Special    Method    in    Geography,    Chaps.    I    and 

VIII. 
Dodge,  R.  E  —  "Teachers'  College  Record,"  March,  1901. 
O  'Shea,  M.  V. — Education  as  Adjustment. 
Keith,  J.  A.  II. — Elementary  Education,  Chap.   IT. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

Human  and  Social  Geography. 
topics  to  be  goxsideked. 

The  terms  "human'1  and  "social'';  the  real  meaning  of  human 
geography;  how  primitive  man  adjusts  himself  to  ins  geo- 
graphic environment;  how  civilized  man  modifies  his  geo- 
graphic environment  to  better  serve  his  needs;  the  narrow 
view  of  human  geography. 

Geography  in  the  light  of  social  efficiency;  how  it  contributes  to 
social  efficiency;   usefulness  of  geographic   knowledge. 

Geography  involves  principles  of  economics;  the  self-sufficing 
versus  the  commercial  economy;  geography,  rightly  studied, 
re-acts  against  formalism;  geography  and  nature  study  tend 
to   engender   a    humane   spirit. 

The  terms  human  and  social,  as  applied  to 
geography,  are  often  used  synonymously.  The 
writer  believes,  however,  that  there  is  some  dis- 
tinction. Human  geography,  generally  speaking. 
refers  to  the  activities  of  man,  of  human  beings, 
and  the  various  ways  in  which  his  activities  and 
industries  ultimately  affect  social  environment. 
But  human  activities  sometimes  affect  environ- 
ment in  such  an  indirect  manner,  or  so  slowly. 
that  the  influence  is  not  very  apparent.  Social 
geography  includes  those  activities  and  industries 
whose  influence  upon  society  is  more  direct  and 
immediate.     Under  this  head  belong  political  and 

95 


96         THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

commercial  geography.  Our  regulating  systems, 
such  as  interstate  commerce  laws,  the  tariff  and 
other  regulations  which  in  their  application 
greatly  affect  production  and  transportation, 
serve  as  effective  controls  over  industries,  and, 
as  such,  are  elements  of  social  geography. 

I.       HUMAN   GEOGRAPHY. 

That  the  so-called  ''human  side"  of  geography 
is  of  prime  importance  and  chief  interest  in  the 
study  of  the  subject  is  readily  admitted.  But 
that  "geography  is  a  study  of  the  earth  as  the 
home  of  man,"  and  nothing  more,  is  neither  com- 
prehensive nor  scientific,  Geography  is  highly 
complex  and  the  danger  here,  as  in  other  fields 
of  study,  is  that  undue  recognition  and  emphasis 
shall  he  given  to  some  particular  phase. 

The  conception  of  geography,  elsewhere  given,* 
does  not  limit  the  subject  to  "the  earth  as  the 
home  of  man;"  the  oak  tree,  the  pond-lily  and  the 
coral  polyp;  the  antelope,  horned  toad  and  bird  of 
paradise,  are  each  and  all  inhabitants  of  the 
earth  and,  as  such,  each  has  its  characteristics 
determined  by  geographic  controls.  So  far  as 
man  is  concerned  he  is  simply  one  of  the  creatures 
of  the  earth;  he  battles  with  his  environment,  re- 
sponds to  its  influence,  and  in  the  end  survives  or 
perishes  the  same  as  do  the  myriads  of  lower  life 
forms  about  him.  His  advantage  lies  in  the  fact 
that  intelligence,  rather  than  mere  instinct,  en- 
ables  him   to   conquer  where  his   lower  brothers 

*  Si'o  chapter  on  "Geographic  Conditions  and  Effects." 


HUMAN    AND    SOCIAL    GE0GRAPH1  97 

fail.  It  is  readily  conceded  that  whatever  touches 
the  life  of  man  most  directly  should  first  gain  the 
attention  of  the  student.  Hence  the  study  of 
one's  immediate  environment  is  of  prime  impor- 
tance, first,  because  the  things  studied,  apply 
directly  to  his  life  and  therefore  appeal  strongly 
to  his  interests,  and  again  because  these  first- 
hand notions  constitute  his  intellectual  capital,  by 
means  of  which  he  is  to  come  into  possession  of 
world-knowledge. 

In  using  the  expression  "human  geography" 
we  must  not  think  of  man  as  outside  of  the  realm 
of  geography,  yet  reacting  in  some  way  upon 
things  geographic,  but  Ave  should  rather  regard 
him  as  a  response  of  the  highest  type,  to  environ- 
ing conditions.  Such  a  view  is  evolutionary  and 
rational.  The  characteristics  of  the  Eskimo,  the 
native  Ethiopian,  and  the  inhabitant  of  the  tem- 
perate regions,  all  exemplify  this  truth.  Wherein, 
then,  is  found  the  human  side  of  geography? 

The  answer  is  found  in  the  following: 

1.  That  man  adjusts  himself  to  environing 
conditions. 

2.  That  whenever  those  conditions  are  un- 
favorable to  the  best  life,  but  capable  of  improve- 
ment, man  modifies  and  reorganizes  his  environ- 
ment and  makes  it  serve  him  the  better. 

The  first — the  adjustment  of  man  to  an  un- 
changed environment  —  is  universal,  but  best  illus- 
trated by  the  life  of  a  savage  or  barbaric  people. 
The  second  i-  the  characteristic  quality  of  civil- 
ized nations. 


!)S         THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

Slowly  but  surely  men  adjust  themselves  to 
physiographic  conditions.  The  wisest  adjustment 
and  the  highest  success  are  coincident.  These 
principles  determine  the  growth  and  location  of 
industries  and  the  distribution  of  population.  The 
pine  woods  and  deep  estuaries  of  Maine  in  an 
early  day  led  to  ship  building.  The  people  who 
lived  on  the  capes  and  promontories  (Gloucester, 
Massachusetts,  is  a  good  example)  became  fisher- 
men because  they  were  really  out  at  sea  even 
when  their  boats  were  at  the  dock.  The  oyster 
industry  of  Chesapeake  bay  owes  its  existence  to 
a  shallow  sea,  as  otherwise,  dredging  for  the  crop 
would  be  difficult.  The  inner  lowlands  of  Ala- 
bama, with  their  rich  limestone  soils,  were  se 
lected  as  a  superior  region  for  the  production  of 
cotton.  The  arid  west,  with  its  plains  and  moun- 
tains, is  a  grazing  region,  not  because  its  pas- 
turage in  any  degree  compares  with  that  of  the 
prairie  plains,  but  because,  under  the  existing 
conditions,  herding  yields  the  best  returns  and  is, 
therefore,  a  wise  adjustment  to  physiographic 
conditions.  In  every  case  of  localized  industry  it 
has  been  man's  function  to  discover  what  form 
of  activity  or  what  crop-system  is  best  suited  to 
a  region  and  hence  will  yield  the  largest  income. 

The  human  side  of  geography  shows  itself  in  a 
more  positive  manner  when  man  modifies,  in  some 
marked  degree,  his  geographical  surroundings. 
Instances  of  this  kind  are  found  in  the  construc- 
tion of  great  commercial  highways,  in  the  recla- 
mation of  the  vast  arid  regions,  in  the  drainage 


HI  MAX    AND    SOCIAL    GE0GEAPH1  99 

of  swamps  and  in  increasing'  the  productive  capac- 
ity of  the  soils.  The  discovery  of  an  abandoned 
waterway  westward  across  Xew  York  led  some 
emigrant  trains  across  the  Appalachian  barrier 
in  an  early  day;  but  when  man  deepened  the  chan- 
nel and  transformed  it  into  an  artery  of  commerce 
connecting-  the  Hudson  with  Lake  Erie,  the  real 
significance  of  the  physiographic  factor,  as  modi- 
fied by  man,  at  once  became  apparent.  The  east 
and  west  alike  responded  to  the  new  control,  and 
no  history  of  our  country  is  complete  that  does 
not  take  cognizance  of  the  opening  of  the  Erie 
Canal.  The  building  of  trans-continental  rail- 
roads and  inter-oceanic  canals,  therefore,  well 
illustrates  the  human  factor  in  geography. 

There  are  those  who  interpret  human  geography 
to  mean  only  the  industrial  and  commercial  ac- 
tivities of  man.  This  is  not  a  broad  or  funda- 
mental view  of  the  subject.  The  study  of  indus- 
tries may  or  may  not  be  geographic.  If  mere 
technique  is  considered  they  certainly  lose  such 
significance.  It  is  not  so  much  '"just  how  a  thing 
is  made.''  but  its  influence  upon  other  industries, 
upon  people  and  countries,  when  it  is  made,  that 
makes  it  of  geographic  importance.  The  exist- 
ence of  waterfalls  may  lead  to  the  erection  of  a 
factory;  the  consequent  industry  may  require  ad- 
ditional facilities:  an  influx  of  people  follows  and 
a  city  springs  into  existence;  now,  the  adjacent 
country  responds  to  a  demand  by  the  industrial 
center  for  more  food  and  supplies.     The  country 


100  THE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

people  change  their  crop-systems*  to  meet  new  de- 
mands, they  are  more  prosperous,  they  live  better, 
and  eventually  they  improve  and  develop  lands 
that,  under  the  old  regime,  they  could  not  afford 
to  cultivate.  In  this  sense,  an  industry  is  geo- 
graphical in  nature.  It  is  only  fair  to  say.  how- 
ever, that  as  more  improved  machinery  and  meth- 
ods are  employed  and,  therefore,  the  production 
of  raw  material  is  stimulated,  and  the  output 
brought  within  the  means  of  larger  numbers  of 
people,  that  the  method  of  work  assumes  the  na- 
ture of  a  geographical  control.  The  invention 
and  use  of  AVhitney's  cotton  gin  is  an  instance  of 
tli is  kind. 

In  its  deepest  and  best  sense,  then,  human 
geography  is  apparent  in  those  activities  of  a 
people  which  finally  assume  the  nature  of  geo- 
graphic controls,  and,  therefore,  have  a  far- 
reaching  and  often  lasting  influence  upon  the  dis- 
tribution of  population,  industrial  life,  social  de- 
velopment, and  geographic  conditions.  As  stated 
above,  this  phase  of  geographical  study  may  be 
reduced  to  two  general  principles,  viz.:  I  1  )  man's 
intelligent  adjustment  to  physiographic  condi- 
tions and  (2)  the  improvement  of  those  conditions, 
whenever  possible,  for  the  purpose  of  making  his 
life  and  the  life  of  his  fellows  richer  and  more 
abundant. 

II.       SOCIAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

Effective   citizenship   includes    (1)    the   individ- 

*  Si  <■    .1 ."'  ii'iill a i  nl    Kcontimlca,    Taylor. 


HUMAN    AND    SOCIAL    GEOGRAPHY  101 

ual's  ability  and  inclination  toward  self-support, 
and  (2)  an  intelligence  which  enables  him  to  main- 
tain himself  and  at  the  same  time  so  to  order  his 
economic  and  social  relations  that  his  fellows  may 
enjoy  equal  opportunity  with  him.  It  includes  a 
will  to  place  social  well-being  ahead  of  individual 
welfare. 

An  efficient  citizen  has  productive  capacity. 
lie  produces  that  which  ministers  directly  to  the 
material  needs  of  society;  he  assists  in  securing 
social  conditions  —  laws  and  regulations  —  which 
favor  individual  prosperity;  and  more  indirectly, 
he  helps  in  the  production  of  a  general  intelli- 
gence and  a  public  spirit  which  are  always  in- 
centives to  individual  endeavor. 

The  very  nature  of  geography  makes  its  formal 
study  valuable  in  securing  the  social  attitude  just 
referred  to.  One  of  the  first  advantages  of  geog- 
raphy as  a  formal  study  arises  from  the  fact  that 
it  is  concrete:  that  suitable  data  are  everywhere 
available:  and  that  an  inductive  procedure  is 
possible.  The  true  geography  of  the  earth  is 
the  geography  of  today,  and  the  most  impor- 
tant geography  for  any  individual  is  his  local 
geogra]  >hy. 

If  social  efficiency  is  a  legitimate  aim  in  edu- 
cation, material  should  be  selected  that  will  con- 
tribute to  its  development: — material,  a  knowl- 
edge of  which  may  be  made  to  function  in  every 
day  life.  The  richness  of  the  subject-matter  of 
geography  permits  of  great  selection  and  makes 
possible    the    useful    expression    of    the    lessons 


102  THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

taught.  The  present  educational  reform  is  that 
of  pulling  the  schools  away  from  a  traditional 
past  and  aligning  them  with  the  living  present. 
Every  social  being  lives  through  inter-relation- 
ships with  his  complete  environment — earth  and 
stone, — wood  and  iron, — air  and  water, — plants 
and  animals, — his  friends  and  business  associates 
— and  to  these  he  relates  himself  and  of  these  he 
makes  legitimate  use,  in  his  struggle  for  improved 
existence.  Geography,  then,  deals  with  element- 
ary facts  of  agriculture,  mining,  manufacturing, 
economics  and  sociology,  not  as  borrowed  mate- 
rials but  as  legitimate  parts  of  its  own  content; 
and,  because  it  deals  with  numerous  actual  life 
conditions,  its  subject-matter  is  rich,  significant, 
and  pertinent  in  every  day  life. 

At  the  outset,  geography  teaches  many  facts 
concerning  rural  and  urban  life,  directly  useful 
to  the  individual  in  gaining  a  point  of  vantage 
in  his  struggle  for  a  better  existence.  Agricul- 
ture and  nature  study  will  help  in  bringing  use- 
ful information,  but  for  a  long  time  geography 
must  continue  to  be  the  main  source  of  knowledge 
and  insight  relating  to  community  life.  Some 
knowledge  of  the  regular  occurrence  of  cyclonic 
storms,  and  of  the  practical  assistance  of  the 
weather  bureau;  elementary  facts  concerning  the 
cultivation,  fertility  and  means  of  maintaining 
productive  capacity  of  soils;  information  concern- 
ing the  reciprocal  needs  of  city  and  country,  sug- 
gesting advantageous  industrial  pursuits;  authen- 
tic facts  relating  to  regions  somewhat  remote  and 


HUMAN    AND    SOCIAL    GKOGliAl'IIl  103 

serving  in  some  measure  to  guide  the  course  of 
emigration;  such  knowledge  as  this  seems  to  be 
directly  and  practically  useful,  and  is  contributed 
very  largely  through  the  study  of  geography. 
Poverty  is  a  great  handicap  to  efficiency  of  life — 
and  therefore,  whatever  tends  towards  prosperity 
brings  opportunity  for  individual  development. 
Hence  practical  instruction  in  geography  contrib- 
utes to  effective  citizenship. 

Geography  involves  principles  of  practical  eco- 
nomics. The  practice  of  a  true  economy  increases 
the  productive  capacity  of  the  individual,  which 
leads  to  increased  prosperity,  and  makes  possible 
greater  social  usefulness. 

Il  is  not  meant  that  formal  instruction  in  eco- 
nomics will  l>e  given,  but  that  a  full  understanding 
of  commercial  geography,  especially,  will  require 
some  consideration  of  the  laws  that  govern  pro- 
duction,  transportation  and  consumption. 

A  commercial  economy  dominates  modern  agri- 
cultural life,  because  such  economy  brings  the 
largest  long-time  net  profit.  Obviously,  the  prac- 
tice of  the  best  farmers  is  the  production  of  one 
or  two  commodities  for  the  market,  it  having  been 
previously  determined  what  commodities  will 
bring  the  largest  profits,  with  a  given  outlay  of 
labor  and  capital.  With  his  proceeds  the  farmer 
buys  many  things  which  it  is  possible  to  produce 
on  the  farm.  Most  of  the  farmers  in  central  Illi- 
nois buy  their  flour  on  the  open  market  because 
they  recognize  the  fact  that  the  farmers  i)\'  Min- 
nesota  and  the   Dakotas  who  are  making  a   busi- 


104        rnE   TEACHING  OF   GEOGEAPEY 

ness  of  raising  wheat,  and  the  millers  of  Minne- 
apolis who  are  making  a  business  of  converting 
it  into  flour,  can  furnish  the  product  at  a  less 
cost  than  the  Illinois  farmer  (whose  business  is 
to  raise  corn  and  fatten  stock)  and  the  local  miller 
can  produce  it.  The  principle  applies  to  a  score 
of  things  which  the  farmer  could  produce  but 
does  not.  because  he  can  buy  them  cheaper. 

Boys  and  girls  in  the  upper  grades  can  be  in- 
terested in  comparing  with  this  commercial  econ- 
omy the  self-sufficing  economy  practiced  by  the 
early  Xew  England  people,  and  the  advantages 
of  the  modern  system  will  readily  be  appreciated. 

The  study  of  production,  transportation  and 
consumption,  as  involved  in  geography,  are  re- 
lated industrial  and  economic  problems  which  will 
broaden  the  pupil's  outlook  and  define  his  rela- 
tions to  both  his  physical  and  social  environment. 
As  a  response  to  environing  conditions,  the  people 
of  one  region  produce  a  certain  useful  product 
while  the  inhabitants  of  a  remote  region  may  pro- 
duce something  equally  useful.  Through  trans- 
portation, the  surplus  of  each  is  conveyed  to  the 
other,  and  as  a  result  each  will  have  its  productive 
capacity  enhanced.  The  pupil  may  come  to  see 
that  no  individual  or  community  can.  independ- 
ently of  other  individuals  or  communities,  live  as 
well  or  produce  as  much,  as  is  possible  through 
the  reciprocal  helpfulness  of  exchange.  Such  an 
outlook,  it  would  seem,  will  make  the  future  citi- 
zen more  rational  in  his  industrial  pursuits,  and 
nH»re  democratic  in  the  exercise  of  his  civil  rights. 


HUMAN    AND    SOCIAL    GEOGRAPHY  105 

Geography  is  the  best  medium  through  which 
education  can  be  shifted  from  the  formal  and 
symbolic  to  the  rational  and  scientific.  There  cer- 
tainly is  no  school  subject  in  which  the  relations 
of  cause  and  effect  are  more  clearly  and  more 
often  apparent  than  they  are  in  geography.  The 
pupil  may  here  find  real  explanations  for  real 
things.  No  longer  need  they  accept  things  on 
formal  statements.  The  great  forces  which  domi- 
nate nature  are  typified  at  the  very  door  of  the 
school,  and  there  pupils  may  study  them  in  an 
undistorted  condition.  School-work  and  life-work 
here  meet  on  common  grounds.  Xo  improvised 
laboratory  is  needed  to  bridge  the  chasm  between 
the  symbolic  and  the  genuine.  Inductively  the 
pupil  reaches  his  conclusions  and  such  a  proce- 
dure encourages  a  scientific  mental  habit,  fatal 
to  tradition  and  superstition.  Citizenship  cannot 
he  effective  until  the  individual  is  rational,  and 
is  disposed  to  an  impartial  consideration  of  social 
and  civic  problems.  Public  spirit  and  civic  pride 
are  terms  which  suggest  social  helpfulness  and 
community  good.  Are  they  not  attributes  of  those 
capable  of  analyzing  conditions  and  reaching  log- 
ical conclusions.7  If  effective  citizenship  can  any- 
where be  taught  directly,  it  would  seem  that  a 
study  of  rational  geography  in  the  upper  grades 
might  serve  in  this  capacity. 

Geography  and  nature  study  tend  toward  a  de- 
velopment of  a  humanitarian  spirit  through  the 
sympathy  and  interest  which  they  beget  for  the 


10$  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

lower  forms  of  life.  The  effective  citizen  must 
be  humane  and  altruistic.  He  must  live  and  let 
live.  In  genera],  this  spirit  may  be  awakened  and 
nourished  through  the  observance  of  the  universal 
struggle  for  existence.  Children  who  have  been 
well  directed  in  nature  study,  do  not  wantonly 
trample  upon  wild  flowers,  mutilate  the  branches 
of  trees,  or  destroy  harmless  life.  They  come  to 
see,  also,  the  use  of  much  that  is  inanimate  and 
inorganic,  and  finally  they  may  arrive  at  a  con- 
ception of  life  as  manifold  relationships  and  in- 
teractions with  environment.  Such  an  attitude 
toward  nature  is  at  once  ethical  and  moral.  Social 
efficiency  depends  very  largely  upon  the  ability  to 
appreciate  proper  relationships  and  to  estimate 
proper  uses.  The  inventor  calmly  reflects  upon 
the  needs  of  society  and  then  turns  his  attention 
to  some  material  thing  which  he  adjusts  to  human 
use,  and  so  establishes  a  new  relationship  between 
man  and  nature.  The  effective  citizen  must  have 
sufficient  insight  into  geographical  environment 
to  discern  adjustments  and  modifications  that  will 
benefit  himself  and  the  community;  but  such  an 
understanding  engenders  an  interest  and  sym- 
pathy which  is  quite  akin  to  the  humanitarian 
spirit  of  a  purely  social  environment.  Hence  it 
may  be  said  that  any  modification  of  physical  or 
social  environment  that  improves  social  condi- 
tions and  enhances  social  welfare  is  a  geographic 
control  and  belongs  to  the  social  phase  of 
geography. 


HUMAN    AND    SOCIAL    OLOGRAPH)  107 

SUGGESTIONS   AND    QUESTIONS. 

1.  Does  the  scientific  view  of  geography  permit  its  limitation  to  a 

study  of  the  earth  as  the  home  of  man?     Show  why. 
L'.   To   what    extent    can   man  modify   his   geographic   environment! 

Give    several    instances. 
;;.   What    are  the  qualities  of  an  efficient   citizen?     What   is  there 

in  the   nature  of  geography   that  makes  its  study  valuable  in 

developing    useful   citizens? 
4.    How    can   a   knowledge   of  geography  enable   a  citizen   to   adapt 

his    industry  more   advantageously? 
'>.    How   important   is   transportation  to   the  nations  of  the  earth? 

How    does    it    enable   nations    to    live   better?      Does    it,    then, 

satisfy  social  needs? 
G.    What    department    of   geographical   study  especially  emphasizes 

the  social  phase  ? 


FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  Head  Chap.  T.  Book  III,  in  Small  and  Vincent's  Introduction 
in  thr  Study  of  Society  and  write  an  essay  to  show  why 
land  is  a  social  element.  What,  then,  is  the  relationship  of 
geography   to   sociology? 

J.  Study  your  home  environment  to  find  examples  of  human  adjust- 
ment to  physical  conditions.  Are  houses  built  at  the  foot  of 
liiils.'  Do  farmers  drive  herds  to  rivers  or  springs  for  water? 
Are  streams  forded?  Select  and  describe  as  many  instances 
as  possible.  Are  these  adjustments  indicative  of  the  greatest 
prosperity? 

','>.  Select  instances  in  your  home  environment  to  show  reorgani- 
zation it  natural  environment.  Does  the  near-by  railroad 
follow  a  river  valley?  Hoes  it  cut  through  or  tunnel  a  hill? 
In    either   case,   explain    why. 

1.   What    crop   system    prevails?      Why? 

~>.    Is   the    fresh    meat    slaughtered   at   home   or  shipped  in?     Why.' 

(i.  Do  you  believe  that  the  proper  study  of  geography  can  make 
better  citizens?  Did  the  instruction  given  you  contribute  to 
your  efficiency  ? 

7.  What  kind  of  economy  is  exemplified  in  Whittier's  "Snow- 
Bound"?  Does  tin-  same  economy  now  prevail?  What  causes 
a  cha  ntre  i  n  eeoiiomv  ? 


108  THE   TEACHING  OF   GEOGRAPHY 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Branford,  Victor  V. — "Science  and  Citizenship,"  Am.  Jour.  Soc, 

Vol.  XI,  pp.  721-726. 
Van   Liew,   Chas.   C. — "Social   Phase   of   Geography,"    Bui.    Am. 

Bu.  of  Geog.,  Vol.  II. 

Trotter,   Spencer — "The   Social   Function  of  Geography,"  Fourth 

Year  Book,  Xat.  Herbart  Soc. 
Sinnott,   Chas.   I'. — "Development   of  the  Child's   Social   Nature 

Through   Geography   and  History,"  Bui.     Am.  Bu.   of   Geog., 

Vol.  II,  Xo.  4. 
Wolfe,    Lloyd    F. — "The    Human    Side    of    Geography,"    Proc. 

X.  E.  A.,  1903,  p.   14.3. 
Keltic,  J.  Scott — Applied  Geography,  Philip  &  Son. 
King,  Chas.  F. — "Concrete  Geography,"   Bui.    Am.  Bu.  of  Geog., 

Vol.  I. 
Bagley,  W.  C. — The  Educative  Process,  Chap.  III. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

Geography  a\d  Life, 
topic's  to  be  considered. 

Life's  struggle  with   environment;   how  animals  and   plants   live, 
temperature,  moisture  ami  soil  conditions. 

The  distribution  of  peoples;   how  man  lives  in  the  tropics;  in  the 

polar  regions;    in  the  temperate   belts. 
Life  a   process  of  establishing  an  equilibrium  with   environment; 

re-creation  of  environment  a  proof  of  enlightened  civilization. 
How     industries     are     earth-determined;     physiographic     features 

restrict  habitable  areas;  the  life  and  character  of  peoples  thus 

influenced. 
How  industries  are  determined  in  populous  countries;    in  sparsely 

inhabited    countries;    how   geography    influences    political    his- 
tory;   England  cited. 
How   geography   is  related   to  life;   how  it   can  help  people   to  live 

better;    dignity  of  the  subject. 

The  leading  consideration  concerning  all  life  is 
self-perpetuation.  The  inalienable  right  to  live 
is  the  most  impressive  thought  revealed  in  nature. 
Dearness  of  life  is  the  sole  cause  of  the  universal 
conflict  in  the  organic  world.  A  superficial  glance 
at  nature  reflects  the  harmony  and  tranquillity 
of  a  "daisied  field  in  June,"  but  a  more  careful 
scrutiny  convinces  us  that  the  realm  of  nature  is 
the  scene  of  a  warfare  "utterly  shameless  and 
utterly  cruel."  "Long  life  and  length  of  days" 
come  only  to  the  creature  whose  environment  is 

109 


HO        TEE   TEACHING  OF   GEOGRAPHY 

favorable  to  its  needs.  Organisms  either  find  de- 
sirable homes  and  congenial  company,  or  vanish 
from  the  earth  altogether.  The  security  of  life  is 
contingent  upon  environment.  The  interesting 
adaptations  of  plants  to  secure  sunlight,  water, 
and  food:  and  of  animals  to  secure  food,  and  for 
rivalry  and  defense,  establish  the  fact  that  de- 
pendence characterizes  every  organism  by  deter- 
mining its  nature. 

Animals  derive  food  either  directly  or  indirectly 
from  plants,  for  they  alone  possess  the  important 
function  of  organizing  inorganic  materials.  Since 
the  two  kingdoms  must  occupy  the  same  domain, 
the  struggle  for  existence  is  made  more  intense. 
But  plants,  in  turn,  are  dependent  upon  proper 
conditions  of  temperature,  moisture  and  soils. 
The  temperature  of  any  region  leads  to  a  con- 
sideration of  the  sun  and  its  effect  upon  earth  and 
atmosphere;  moisture  takes  into  account  the 
aqueous  envelope  as  affected  by  heat  and  winds; 
and  soils  result  from  the  combined  action  of  all 
these  factors  and  forces  upon  the  rock  crust  of 
the  earth.  Plants  do  not  thrive  in  regions  where 
the  temperature  remains  long  at  or  below  .32°, 
as  water  is  necessary  to  dissolve  and  transport 
nourishment.  A  meager  precipitation  of  moisture, 
for  a  similar  reason,  stunts  plant  growth:  hut 
with  sufficient  moisture  and  a  sufficiently  high 
temperature  there  is  scarce  a  region  in  the  world 
that  would  not  ''blossom  as  the  rose." 

A  consideration  of  man's  distribution  and  de- 
velopment   reveals    positive    evidence    of   his    re- 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  LIFE  m 

spouse  to  physiographic  conditions.   Temperature 

and  moisture  are  chief  among  these,  not  only  be- 
cause they  affect  man  directly,  but  because  they 
determine  the  productiveness  of  habitable  areas. 
A  study  of  the  progress  of  civilization  leads  to 
the  conclusions  (1)  that  range  and  variation  in 
climatic  conditions  are  favorable  to  civilization 
and  culture,  and  (2)  that  extreme  and  uniform 
conditions  are  unfavorable  to  the  advancement  of 
civilization. 

Tropical  regions  support  a  luxuriant  vegetation 
in  response  to  high  temperature,  liberal  rainfall 
and  alluvial  soils.  The  food  supply  is  generous 
and  were  it  not  for  other  less  favorable  condi- 
tions a  dense  population  might  flourish.  The 
range  of  temperature  is  scarcely  more  than  ten 
degrees,  and.  in  addition  to  the  enervating  influ- 
ence upon  human  beings,  it  permits  an  uninter- 
rupted plant  growth,  insuring  abundant  food  with 
but  little  expense  of  human  energy.  The  rank 
vegetation  becomes  a  barrier  which  man  declines 
to  penetrate,  partly  because  intertwining  plants 
and  vines  obstruct  his  path,  and  partly  because 
this  tropical  verdure  harbors  a  dreaded  animal 
and  insect  life.  Resistance  to  life,  so  far  as  food 
and  shelter  are  concerned,  is  reduced  to  the  min- 
imum; the  palm  alone  may  furnish  all  that  human 
life  demands  for  mere  subsistence.  Excessive 
heat  causes  man  to  languish  in  the  shade;  ex- 
cessive moisture  breeds  disease  and  makes  culti- 
vation difficult.  The  uniform  climate  and  unlim- 
ited  varieties   in   vegetation   become  monotonous 


112  TUE   TEACHING  OF   GEOGEAPEY 

and  oppressive.  Plant  life  holds  the  scepter !  Man 
is  over-awed  with  the  fierceness  and  regularity 
of  environing-  conditions.  Long  subjection  has 
brought  with  it  resignation  and  mental  decadence. 
What  wonder,  then,  that  the  primitive  mind 
should  reverence  forces  so  irresistible  as  scorch- 
ing suns,  angry  skies,  gigantic  trees  and  ferocious 
beasts !  "What  wonder  that  man  should  abandon 
a  struggle  for  supremacy  in  which  the  odds  are 
so  against  him ! 

Civilization  is  also  in  a  low  stage  in  the  Arctic 
regions.  The  Eskimo's  struggle  for  existence  is 
so  intense  that  all  human  effort  is  expended  in 
extorting  from  nature  a  meager  support.  If  we 
reflect  on  the  conditions  of  his  environment,  we 
shall  discover  the  most  depressing  monotony  in 
the  long  silent  night  with  only  lurid  gleams  of 
light,  in  the  illimitable  expanse  of  glacial  ice,  in 
the  absence  of  vegetation,  in  the  desolate  climate, 
and  in  the  few  species  of  animal  life;  surely  his  is 
a  "universe  of  sky  and  snow."  Here,  again, 
nature  outbalances  man,  and  ambition  is  weighed 
down  by  conditions  so  monotonous  that  no  excita- 
tions appeal  to  him  except  those  for  food  and 
shelter.  Even  the  food  that  he  eats  so  lacks 
variety  that  the  building  up  of  a  sensitive  and 
susceptible  organism  is  impossible.  He  is  as 
stolid  as  the  world  in  which  lie  dwells.  Being 
driven  for  long  periods  to  his  home  by  the  rigors 
of  the  clime,  his  emotional  nature  responds  to 
enforced  retirement  and  hence  he  manifests  a 
strong  love  for  home  and  familv.     Snrelv  his  is  a 


GEOGRAPHY  AM)  LIFE  113 

case  of  arrested  development,  as  growth  in  intel- 
ligence demands  at  least  some  surplus  energy 
after  a  mere  livelihood  is  insured. 

Temperate  regions  arc  characterized  by  a  great 
range  of  temperature  and  a  varying  supply  of 
moisture.  A  rigorous  climate  demands  well  built 
homes  and  warm  clothing;  short  summers  demand 
great  activity  in  order  to  mature  crops;  indigen- 
ous food-plants  do  not  abound;  soils  produce  only 
when  carefully  cultivated;  woods  are  relatively 
scarce;  metals  are  abundant  but  often  difficult  to 
obtain:  and  mountain  barriers  frequently  sepa- 
rate productive  areas.  The  variety  of  influences 
in  environment  demands  versatile  and  symmet- 
rical development.  Even  sudden  weather-changes 
stimulate  mind  and  body.  Life  becomes  abundant 
only  when  it  establishes  many  relations.  Intel- 
lectual life  is  quickened  in  the  consideration  of 
that  which  is  economic  and  advantageous.  Kivalry 
and  competition  make  life  strenuous.  Just  as  the 
equable  temperature  of  the  tropics  minimizes 
man's  needs  and  leads  to  responses  that  are  uni- 
form, so  the  temperate  realm  multiplies  the  neces- 
saries of  life  and  brings  a  variety  of  responses. 
The  hin'h  temperature  of  summer,  following  a 
severe  winter,  is  a  powerful  industrial  stimulus, 
and  the  reactions  which  lessen  the  tension  come 
in  the  form  of  linen  clothing,  electric  fans,  manu- 
factured ice.  open  cars,  railroads  to  mountain  re- 
treats and  seaside  resort*.  So  millions  of  men 
are  hu>y  because  the  su?1  has  mounted  higher  in 
the   heavens. 


1M  TILE  TEACHING  OF   GEOGRAPHY 

According-  to  Herbert  Spencer  life  is  the  process 
of  establishing  an  equilibrium  with  environment. 
The  more  intricate  and  complex  the  equilibria! 
processes  become,  the  higher  the  degree  of  life 
and  the  higher  the  scale  of  civilization.  In  low 
forms  of  life  the  adjustments  to  environment  are 
simple,  and  the  accommodations  are  largely  ef- 
fected by  the  organisms  themselves.  Every  ani- 
mal must  either  respond  to  the  demands  for  food 
and  protection  from  enemies,  or  become  extinct. 
The  tropical  inhabitant  adjusts  himself  to  his 
surroundings  almost  completely;  he  lives  in  caves 
or  in  the  shelter  of  trees,  wears  little  clothing  and 
subsists  on  fruits,  roots  and  insects.  He  is  a 
direct  response  to  an  equable  climate  and  a  highly 
productive  soil  abounding  with  indigenous  food- 
plants.  Provision  for  the  future  is  unnecessary, 
hence  irresponsive  and  indolent  habits  are  conse- 
quent reactions.  Inactivity  and  stupidity  are 
direct  responses  to  conditions  that  make  life  easy. 
So  nature,  here  violent  and  monotonous,  outbal- 
ances a  manhood  that  places  little  value  upon  an 
existence  that  is  so  generously  bestowed. 

Re-creation  of  environment  is  the  test  of  en- 
lightened civilization.  In  the  lower  stages  of 
civilization,  man  stooped  to  adjust  himself  to  na- 
ture and  so  became  enslaved;  but  in  highly  civil- 
ized races,  men  have  developed  tastes  and  needs 
which  nature,  alone,  cannot  satisfy.  So  human 
ingenuity  and  discovery  are  summoned  to  trans- 
form material  resources,  and  the  work  of  nature 
is    consummated   with    an    artificial    touch,    which 


GEOGRAPHY  AND   LIFE  H;, 

makes  it  serve  more  perfectly  a  fastidious  people. 
All  arts  and  industries,  all  crafts  and  trades, 
have,  in  the  end,  a  single  function  to  perform, 
viz.,  the  promotion  of  natural  resources  to  greater 
usefulness.  But  all  modifications  of  material  re- 
sources demand  an  intellectual  alertness  which 
marks  progress  in  civilization. 

It  is  interesting"  to  trace  out  the  history  of 
localized  industries,  and  one  is  soon  convinced 
that  favorable  productive  conditions,  coupled  with 
advantageous  means  of  distribution,  are  the  de- 
termining factors.  To  one  who  has  studied  geog- 
raphy aright,  it  is  unnecessary  to  explain  why 
cranberries  are  grown  on  Cape  Cod.  tobacco  in 
the  Red  Sandstone  Valley  of  the  Connecticut. 
rice  in  South  Carolina,  or  wheat  in  Minnesota;  or 
why  locomotives  are  made  in  Philadelphia,  plate 
glass  in  Pittsburg,  furniture  in  Grand  Rapids, 
cotton  goods  in  Birmingham,  or  pottery  in  Tren- 
ton. Suffice  it  to  say,  that  industries  slowly  but, 
surely  spring  up  in  the  regions  well  suited  to  their 
development.  Frequently,  where  conditions  are 
adverse,  men  triumph  over  nature's  barriers  to 
civilization,  as  when  they  tunnel  mountains,  con- 
nect oceans  with  watery  threads,  turn  the  course 
of  rivers  and  moisten  arid  lands.  Nature  deals 
out  her  wealth  with  moderation  in  temperate 
zones  and  to  them  only  who  would  '"subdue  and 
have  dominion"  over  her.  Life  is  dear  because 
it  has  been  purchased  by  incessant  toil,  and  it  is 
versatile  and  abundant  because  in  the  struggle  it 


11G        THE   TEACHING  OF   GEOGRAPHY 

acquired    knowledge,    sympathy,    judgment    and 
mercy. 

The  trend  of  industrial  history  is  determined 
by  physiographic  conditions.  Man  can  modify  his 
environment  but  he  cannot  annihilate  it.  In  gen- 
eral, prosperity  is  coincident  with  a  wise  adjust- 
ment to  geographic  conditions.  Chief  among  these 
art'  climate  and  soils,  of  which  much  has  been 
said.  But  land  forms,  themselves,  exert  impor- 
tant controls  over  industrial  life.  A  general  dis- 
tribution of  mountain  ranges  parallel  to  seas 
makes  narrow  coastal  plains;  close  parallel 
ranges  enclose  inter-montane  valleys ;  in  the 
midst  of  the  sea  volcanic  disturbances  project 
habitable  lands;  the  subsidence  of  continental 
margins  is  responsible  for  numerous  head-lands 
and  adjacent  islands;  and  great  rivers  build  and 
moisten  far-reaching  food  plains.  Hence  it  is 
that  these  earth  processes  fashion  restricted  hab- 
itable areas,  while  unrestricted  areas  result  from 
the  evaporation  of  large  water  bodies,  or  from 
the  diastrophic  tilting  or  lifting  of  extensive  sea- 
floors.  Broadly  speaking,  habitable  lands  are  re- 
stricted or  unrestricted  and  a  review  of  industrial 
life  makes  the  following  inductions  possible:  (V 
^Restricted  habitable  areas  determine  industries 
in  which  a  maximum  of  labor  is  expended  in  the 
production  of  a  minimum  of  material.  (-)  Con- 
versely, unrestricted  habitable  areas  determine  in- 
dustries in  which  a  minimum  of  labor  is  expended 
in  the  production  of  a  maximum  of  material. 

The  operation  of  this  principle  is  reflected  in 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  LIFE  117 

the  character  of  the  people.  The  Norwegians, 
hemmed  in  between  the  mountains  and  the  ocean, 
were  long  dependent  upon  the  fishing  industry, 
and  years  at  sea  developed  them  into  the  boldest 
and  most  famous  of  seamen. 

When  a  yard  of  Belgian  hand-made  point  lace 
is  sold,  ninety-five  per  cent,  of  the  purchase  price 
is  for  labor;  the  value  of  the  raw  material  used  is 
insignificant.  In  order  that  nearly  five  hundred 
people  may  live  on  a  square  mile,  the  highest  pos- 
sible utility  must  be  given  every  production,  by 
the  expenditure  of  much  labor  upon  little  mate- 
rial, in  Switzerland,  where  metals  and  woods 
are  scarce,  hand-made  watches  and  ingeniously 
carved  toys  illustrate  how  limited  quantities  of 
raw  material  may  be  transformed  into  great  value 
through  the  application  of  much  industry.  Un- 
usual skill,  strict  economy  and  extreme  persever- 
ance are  the  characteristic  responses  in  the  people. 
Restricted  tillable  areas  near  Boston  and  Xew 
York  stimulate  truck-farming,  because  an  acre  so 
employed  furnishes  a  maximum  of  labor,  the  com- 
pensation for  which  comes  when  a  limited  quan- 
tity of  choice  seasonable  vegetables  finds  a  ready 
market. 

Xot  only  to  industrial  life  does  the  principle 
relating  to  restricted  areas  apply:  it  extends  also 
to  political  history  with  most  decisive  results. 
As  England's  tillable  lands  are  much  restricted, 
Tier  own  soils  have  lonu'  boon  unable  to  support 
her  rapidly  increasing  population.  Tn  1815  the 
Corn  l.aw  was  passed  to  protect  the  English  land- 


H8  TIJI-   TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

lord.  Under  this  obnoxious  measure,  the  price  of 
wheat  in  1817  reached  $3.25  a  bushel,  and  the 
same  year  the  weekly  wage  of  a  weaver  was  $1.02. 
The  struggle  for  free  trade  soon  followed.  The 
exorbitant  price  of  wheat  added  to  the  misery  of 
the  under-fed  laborer,  and  the  tariff  interfered 
with  commerce.  Manufacturers  demanded  free 
trade  because  they  saw  clearly  that  a  more  abun- 
dant food  supply  would  increase  the  spirit  and 
efficiency  of  the  workmen,  and  would  also  tend 
to  keep  labor  cheap.  Had  England's  territory 
been  sufficient  to  furnish  food  for  her  millions, 
the  great  political  struggle  that  wrenched  the 
very  life  of  England  might  have  been  averted. 
The  misery,  suffering,  and  abject  poverty  of  the 
people  enlisted  the  sympathy  of  noble  hearts,  who 
condemned  the  evil  condition  where  "wealth  ac- 
cumulates and  men  decay."  Poets,  reformers, 
and  statesmen  championed  the  cause  of  suffering 
humanity,  and  finally,  in  1846,  Robert  Peel, 
through  motives  altruistic  or  otherwise,  deserted 
the  Tories  and  introduced  the  bill  which  sealed 
the  doom  of  the  Corn  Law  and  marked  the  begin- 
ning of  free  trade  in  England.  So  in  America, 
geography  is  peculiarly  interwoven  with  history. 
The  coastal  plains,  with  their  rich  soils  and  warm, 
moist  climate,  must  answer  for  the  Civil  War,  says 
Prof.  Davis,  for  these  conditions  made  slavery 
profitable.  Ultimately,  the  economic  resources  of 
thf  South  were  responsible  for  the  direful  indus- 
trial situation  there  following  the  war. 

In  areas  where  the  resources  are  less  restricted. 


GEOGRAPHY  A  XI)   LIFE  ny 

the  industrial  problem  is  very  different.  In  con- 
trast to  tiie  Swiss,  who  makes  a  few  ounces  of 
metal  into  a  watch  worth  ten  dollars,  or  the  Bel- 
gian, who  converts  a  handful  of  tlax  into  a  yard 
of  point  lace  worth  its  weight  in  gold,  the  Penn- 
sylvanian  makes  from  his  almost  unrestricted  re- 
sources, iron  and  coal,  locomotives  and  steel  rails. 
The  problem  of  the  Illinois  farmer  is  the  produc- 
tion of  a  maximum  yield  with  the  minimum  in- 
vestment of  labor.  A  load  of  corn  which  brings 
$25  shows  at  least  a  return  of  $20  for  material 
and  the  balance  for  labor.  Dealing,  as  he  does, 
with  produce  in  great  bulk,  he  becomes  wasteful 
and  extravagant.  If.  instead  of  Illinois'  eighty 
people  to  the  square  mile,  it  had  Belgium's  four 
hundred  and  ninety,  no  longer  could  "half  a  til- 
lage stint"  our  prairie  plains.  Xo  half-tilled 
farms,  no  weedy  fence1  corners,  no  peaty  swamps 
or  alkaline  tracts  could  then  exist.  Agriculture  in 
the  past  has  been  easy.  Owing  to  its  great  possi- 
bilities '•man  lias  had  only  to  tickle  the  soil  with 
the  plow  and  it  has  laughed  with  a  harvest."  But 
in  his  greed  to  get  bountiful  returns  with  little 
outlay  of  labor  and  capital,  man  is  fast  reaching 
a  point  of  diminishing  returns.  Because  of  re- 
duced fertility,  a  point  is  reached  at  which  a  given 
outlay  of  labor  and  capital  fails  to  produce  a  pro- 
portionate yield.  Here  the  study  of  geography 
touches  life  most  directly.  It  is  only  through  an 
understanding  of  soils,  and  a  knowledge  of  the 
treatment  by  which  their  fertility  can  be  main- 
tained, that  this  point  of  diminishing  returns  can 


120        THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

be  pushed  farther  into  the  future.     So  the  agri 
cultural  college  becomes  a  necessity,  and  the  call- 
ing' of  the  scientist  is  dignified  by  his  reduction 
of  farming  to  scientific  agriculture. 

lias  too  much  been  said  concerning  the  influ- 
ence of  geography  upon  life,  and  too  little  con- 
cerning the  value  of  the  study  of  geography  as 
presented  in  our  schools?  The  educational  tend- 
ency is  emphatically  toward  a  training  that 
touches  life  in  practical,  rational,  and  vital  ways; 
hence  the  value  of  any  study  must  he  measured 
by  its  contribution  to  fulness  of  life.  That  man 
is  best  educated  who  best  understands  his  environ- 
ment, who  most  clearly  recognizes  his  relation- 
ships and  responsibilities  to  all  other  life,  and 
who  best  uses  his  resources  to  promote  the  com- 
mon weal.  Every  science  deals  with  some  phase 
of  man's  environment,  and  geography,  which  is  a 
department  of  science,  deals  in  a  general  way 
with  the  same  subject-matter.  Any  study  which 
aids  in  giving  man  the  correct  view  of  his  place 
in  nature  is  of  great  value  either  from  the  prac- 
tical or  the  cultural  point  of  view:  for.  indeed. 
culture,  to  be  worthy  the  name,  must  manifest 
itself  in  the  every  day  life  of  a  people. 

The  revelation  of  truth  is  one  of  the  chief  func- 
tions of  all  education.  Superstition  and  tradition 
have  ever  blocked  progress.  Geography  has  as- 
sumed its  share  in  the  task*  of  disseminating 
knowledge.  A  Genoese  visionary,  starting  out  to 
prove  the  rotundity  of  the  earth,  discovered  a  new 
world;  Magellan  consummated  the  unfinished  task 


GEOGRAPHY  AND   LIFE  121 

of  circumnavigating  the  globe.  The  next  great 
triumph  of  truth  came  in  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  when  Copernicus  bequeathed  to 
science  a  solar  system.  "With  the  contributions  of 
Herschel,  Laplace,  Ritter,  and  Guyot,  we  might 
think  the  work  of  geography  complete.  But  again 
conies  the  question  more  pointed  and  specific: 
"How  can  I,  at  the  country  cross-roads,  influence 
life  and  character  through  geography  ? "  Seek  the 
answer  in  this :  if  men  and  women  of  the  next  gen- 
eration shall  be  filled  with  "wisdom  and  under- 
standing": and  if  they  shall  be  free  from  the 
bondage  of  superstitions  that  distort  and  terrify 
life,  then  must  the  children  of  today  be  convinced 
that  moons  neither  help  nor  hinder  the  growth  of 
plants,  nor  affect  the  amount  of  rainfall;  that 
soils,  the  chief  source  of  man's  wealth,  are  the  re- 
positories of  plant-foods  which  unwise  use  may 
exhaust  all  too  soon;  that  cyclones  possess  decided 
economic  value  since  to  them  we  are  chiefly  in- 
debted for  our  copious  rains;  that  the  "magician 
chlorophyll,  conjuring  with  sunbeams,"'  breathes 
life  into  dead  matter  and  makes  an  animal  king- 
dom possible;  that  birds  and  bees  labor  inces- 
santly in  making  man's  harvest  abundant;  that 
the  chief  use  of  the  earth-worm  is  not  to  veneer  a 
fish-hook,  but  to  enhance  the  resources  of  the  soil 
by  keeping  it  rich  and  porous;  that  even  invisible 
organisms  render  the  highest  service  to  man,  as 
when  bacteria  accomplish  the  fixation  of  nitrogen 
in  leguminous  plants;  and  finally,  that  the  forest, 
the  nature-given  heritage  which  man  has  so  wan- 


122  THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

tonly  devastated,  serves  man  directly  in  a  score  of 
ways,  and  indirectly  enriches  and  protects  the 
soils,  prevents  disastrous  floods,  secures  constant 
heads  to  our  streams,  breaks  the  biting  blasts  of 
winter,  and  makes  beautiful,  landscapes  that 
otherwise  would  be  barren  and  monotonous. 

Even  above  the  value  of  practical  knowledge, 
the  student  of  nature  may  discover  the  steadfast- 
ness and  immutability  of  God's  law.  He  may  be 
convinced  that  retribution  follows  its  transgres- 
sion, in  the  physical  as  in  the  spiritual  world,  with 
unfailing  certainty;  and  finally,  that  to  him  who 
is  in  harmony  with  nature,  and  therefore  most 
likely  to  be  "in  tune  with  the  Infinite,"  shall  come 
''length  of  days,  riches,  and  honor." 


SUGGESTIONS    AND    QUESTIONS. 

1.  Why  are  the  temperate  z<mes  the  home  of  the  highest  civili- 
zation ? 

-.  \Yh;it  is  there  in  common  in  the  lives  of  polar  anil  equatorial 
inhabitants?      What    is  the   effort  ? 

'.',.   Why   aio  the   industries  of   Belgium   so   intensified? 

■I.  Why  diil  England  become  a  free  trade  country.'  DM  yengraphy 
have  much  to  do  with  the  change  in  policy?      How? 

■">.  What  principle  predominates  in  the  industry  of  :i  western 
fa  rmer  ? 

H.   Summarize  the  relations  of  geography  and  life. 

FOR    FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.  Tin  Oaan  Atmosphere  and  Life,  by  Elisee  Reclus,  is  unusually 
strong  and  inspiring.  Tt  is  an  excellent  reference  to  the 
student  who  desires  to  comprehend  the  relation-  of  earth- 
forces    and    factors    on    the    development    of    life.      Read,    for 


GEOGRAPHY  AXD  LIFE 


123 


instance,  Chapter  XV,  "Influence  of  Climate,"  in  the  volume 

named  above,  and  prepare  an  argument  to  show  why   highly 

civilized  races  occupy  temperate  regions. 
2,   The    life    of    the    pioneer    was    self-sufficing;    the    economy    of 

today   is  commercial.      Compare. 
'!.  To   illustrate  thai    the  life  of  the  earth  engages  in  a   universal 

conflict,  read  A  Summer  Field  ami  What  It  Tells  Us,  by  .John 

Fiske. 
4.   Shaler's  Xaturt    and  Man   in  America  is  an  excellent  volume  to 

study    in    connection    with    the    foregoing    chapter.      .Select    a 

pertinent   chapter  and  write  a  brief  review  of  it. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


Keclus,    hTisei — • '  The    Earth    and    lis    Inhabitants,"   WJ.    entitle.! 

Ocean  Atmosplu  re  and  Life. 
Mill,    II.   li.—lntt  r national  G( ography. 
Shaler,  X.  H.—Xature  and  Man   in  Xorth  Ann  run. 
Webster,   \V.   V..— History  of  Commnre. 
Merriam,  C.   Hart — "Laws  of  Temperature-Control  of  Grographu 

Distribution   of   Animals   and    Plants,''    Xat.   Gong.  Mag.,    Vol. 

VI.     [1.     l'L'<). 

Taylor.    II.   ('. — Agricultural  Economics: 

Walker,    Fra  in-is — Folit  ical  Economy. 

Trotter.    Spencer — Geography   of   Conuntret. 

Fiske,  John — Cosmic  Philosophy. 

Wallace,   Alfred    Russell — Studies  Scientific  and  Social. 

Wallace,   Alfred    Russell— Island  Lift. 


PART  II. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

The  Teacher's  Preparation. 

topics  to  be  considered. 

Why  geography  demands  broad  scholarship  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher;  teacher  must  know  limits  of  the  subject;  a  knowl- 
edge of  principles,  of  first  consideration. 

Importance  of  an  understanding  of  physiographic  processes;  brief 
discussion  of  diastrophism,  vulcanism  anil  gradation;  the 
cycle,  teacher's  scholastic  equipment  commensurate  with  the 
number  of  generalizations  made. 

A   knowledge  of  local  environment   important;   illustrations. 

Knowledge  of  'nooks,  maps  and  apparatus  necessary  to  success; 
teaching  ability  presupposed. 

In  discussing'  the  teacher's  preparation  in 
geography,  only  the  subject-matter  side  and  a  few 
pedagogical  points  peculiar  to  this  subject,  will  be 
considered.  The  appreciation  of  general  peda- 
gogical principles  is  presupposed. 

Because  of  the  diversified  relationships  of  geog- 
raphy, which  overlap  on  its  physical  side,  the 
fields  of  geology,  astronomy,  zoology,  botany, 
meteorology,  physics  and  their  allied  specialized 

125 


x^G        THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

departments ;  and  on  its  social  side,  history,  civicfe, 
economics  and  sociology,  it  is  evident  that  a  liberal 
education  will  aid  greatly  in  presenting  the  sub- 
ject of  geography.  The  same  argument,  how- 
ever, may  be  advanced  for  many  other  sub- 
jects, though  of  all  elementary-school  subjects, 
geography  requires  the  greatest  range  of  insight 
and  information.  It  should  be  clearly  kept  in 
mind  that  the  marginal  subject-matter  which  ar- 
ticulates geography  with  these  various  subjects, 
is  as  truly  geographical  as  it  is  physical  or  so- 
ciological, and  therefore  geography  ''borrows" 
no  more  from  these  subjects  than  they  "borrow" 
from  it.  (See  Fig.  1,  p.  57.)  The  tests  which  de- 
termine whether  material  is  geographic  are : 

(a)  Does  it  contribute  in  any  way  to  the  corre- 
lation of  life  with  physical  environment  or.  as  Pro- 
fessor "W.  M.  Davis  puts  it,  of  the  physiographic 
and  ontographic  factors  of  the  subject  ? 

(b)  Is  it  necessary  to  an  understanding  of  con- 
trols and  responses? 

(c)  Is  the  material  in  question  directly  or  in- 
directly  ' '  earth-determined  ? ' ' 

Such  tests  are  necessary  to  keep  the  teacher 
from  unconsciously  drifting  into  a  discussion  of 
irrelevant  matter,  a  dangerous  tendency  which 
even  very  earnest  teachers  sometimes  lind  difficult 
to  avoid.  It  is  a  matter  of  extreme  importance, 
however,  for  the  teacher  to  be  constantly  on  his 
guard  against  this  common  weakness. 

One   of    the    first    requisites,   then,   is   that  the 


TEE  TEACHER'S  PREPARATION  127 

teacher  shall  recognize  the  limits  of  the  geographi- 
cal held,  and  thereby  always  direct  his  teaching  to 
purposeful  ends. 

If  we  look  now  to  the  subject-matter  within  tin. 
proper  limits  of  geography,  we  shall  find  it  made 
up  of  countless  facts  and  details  from  which  schol- 
ars have  induced  laws  and  principles.  It  is  with 
this  material  that  the  teacher  must  deal,  using  the 
facts  not  alone  as  ends  in  themselves,  but  as  the 
raw  material  or  data  from  which  general  princi- 
ples are  to  be  derived. 

I.  A  knowledge  of  the  great  physiographic 
processes  is  fundamental  to  the  teacher's  equip- 
ment. Without  their  comprehension  he  sees  only 
"as  through  a  glass  darkly."  It  is  often  observed 
in  normal-school  classes  and  in  institutes,  that 
many  teachers  are  wholly  ignorant  of  these 
processes,  and  since  this  is  true,  no  comprehen- 
sion of  the  life  history  of  continents  is  possible. 
For  the  benefit  of  those  whose  opportunities  have 
been  somewhat  limited,  a  short  exposition  of  these 
processes  is  given.  Experienced  teachers  should 
always  keep  them  within  the  field  of  conscious 
knowledge  and  use  them  as  directive  and  correla- 
tive factors.  The  physiographic  processes  are 
(a)  diastrophism,  (b)  vulcanism,  and  (c)  grada 
tion. 

In  addition  to  these  and  as  a  result  of  their  in- 
teraction, we  have  the  unit  of  terrestrial  life-his- 
tory, the  cycle. 

*  For  fuller  discussion  of  the  comparative  value?  of  facts  and  prlr 
cuil.'s   see  Chapter  XIV. 


128  THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

(a)  Diastrophism  is  the  uplift  or  subsidence  of 
any  portion  of  the  earth's  crust,  or  lithosphere. 
The  earth's  crust  under  the  influence  of  gravity, 
tends  to  invest  the  contracting  centrosphere,  or 
central  core.  This  tendency  causes  the  crust  to 
subside  slowly  in  various  regions,  and  the  subsi- 
dence is  often  accompanied  by  arching  or  folding 
in  other  regions.  Either  movement  is  dias- 
trophic.  If  a  sheet  of  paper  be  laid  on  the  table 
top  and  held  at  both  ends  with  some  "fulness," 
any  attempt  to  smooth  out  the  fulness,  will  cause  it 
to  a})] tear  in  a  different  place.  So  when  sub- 
sidence occurs  in  one  region,  uplift  may  appear 
in  another. 

It  is  through  this  process  of  diastrophism  that 
sea-bottoms  are  lifted  and  large  land  masses  born. 
All  parts  of  the  earth  have  at  some  time  been 
under  water,  and  many  portions  have  oscillated 
from  land  to  sea  many  times,  as  is  attested  by  the 
rocks  and  sediments  exposed  at  the  surface. 
Plateaus  and  mountains  are  often  the  result  of 
the  arching,  folding,  and  faulting  of  the  earth's 
crust. 

But  this  process  is  not  a  matter  of  history  only; 
it  is  a  dynamic  force  now  operating  slowly  in 
many  portions  of  the  earth.  Time  was  when  our 
own  continent  was  an  elongated  island  reaching 
from  Labrador  to  Georgia.  The  Rocky  mountains 
were  then  lifted;  and  by  slow  upward  movement 
and  numerous  subsidences,  the  bed  of  the  Paleo- 
zoic sea  finally  came  to  the  surface,  causing  its 
waters   to   recede  respectively  toward  the  Arctic 


THE  TEACHER'S  PREPARATION  129 

ocean  and  Gulf  of  Mexico.  A  subsidence  of  975 
ft.  would  again  unite  these  bodies  of  water  and 
split  the  continent. 

Continental  oscillations  are  best  observed  at 
the  margins  of  continents.*  Examine  a  good  map 
of  North  America  and  note  the  eastern  edge  of 
the  continental  shell ;  this  was  once  the  margin  of 
our  continent.  Again  observe  the  fall-line  sepa- 
rating the  Piedmont  from  the  Coastal  plains.  This 
was  once  the  continental  margin.  Is  it  not  easy 
to  comprehend  that  sufficient  subsidence  would 
again  permit  the  surf  to  reach  Washington,  Rich- 
mond and  Columbia? 

Let  us  now  see  the  practical  significance  of  the 
sinking  or  the  rising  of  coasts.  The  coast  of 
eastern  North  America  is  at  present  slowly 
subsiding.  The  movement  is  more  pronounced 
north  of  Cape  Ilatteras.  South  of  this  point,  the 
characteristics  are  those  of  a  recently  uplifted 
coast,  though  a  slight  subsidence  is  now  observed. 
Xote  the  irregularity  of  the  coast  line,  the  numer- 
ous drowned  river  valleys  and  more  pronounced 
bays.  Compare  with  the  coast  of  South  Carolina 
and  Georgia,  and  note  the  evenness  of  the  coast- 
line and  the  absence  of  important  bays.  In  which 
division  are  good  harbors  more  numerous?  The 
great  commercial  cities  of  the  northern  division 
are  inland,  at  the  bay-heads;  in  the  south  they  are 
on  the  coast.  "Which  type  of  coast  has  been  more 
favorable  to  industrial  development! 

In  general,  there  are  two  types  of  coasts — the 


See   The  Margin  of  Ow  Continent ,  Xorlh  Amrr-'-n,  Russell. 


130        THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

rising  and  sinking,  of  which  the  sections  pointed 
out  will  serve  as  examples.  Also,  in  a  general 
way,  a  ragged  contour  with  deep  inlets,  suggests 
subsidence,  and  even  shore  lines,  like  the  east 
coast  of  South  America,  suggest  uplift.  But  rag- 
ged and  indented  coasts  may  now  be  rising,  and 
even  coasts  may  be  sinking,  the  reverse  movement 
in  each  case  having  preceded.  Pupils  can  infer 
from  maps  the  great  movements  that  have  oc- 
curred. Thus  the  lands  in  general,  with  their 
mountains,  plateaus,  lake  basins  and  typical 
shore  lines,  are  often  determined  by  diastrophism 
alone;  sometimes  by  this  process  working  in  con- 
junction with  the  others  mentioned. 

(b)  Vulcanism  is  the  ejection  of  the  interior  ma- 
terials of  the  earth  upon  the  surface.  The  causes 
of  this  action  are  not  very  clearly  understood.  The 
process  assists  diastrophism  in  building  land 
masses.  The  inner  materials  are  ejected  either 
through  craters  or  through  fissures  in  the  earth's 
crust.  When  through  craters,  volcanic  cones  are 
formed;  when  through  fissures,  dykes  or  vulcanic 
plateaus.  Mt.  Shasta  is  an  example  of  the  former, 
Columbia  Plateau  of  the  latter.  Vulcanic  action 
often  occurs  in  the  sea.  when  islands  are  formed. 
The  Philippines,  the  islands  of  the  Japan  Empire, 
and  the  Hawaiian  Islands  are  of  vulcanic  origin. 
Hence  vulcanism  also  tends  to  make  lands  and  in- 
crease altitudes  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The 
general  elevation  of  large  regions  of  the  west  has 
been  increased  in  this  manner.  Successive  lava 
Hows   in    Washington  and  Oregon  have  produced 


TEE  TEACHER'S  PREPARATION  131 

vulcanic  rock  of  great  thickness,  as  is  shown  in  the 
canon  of  the  Snake  River  in  southeastern  Wash- 
ington. 

Diastrophic  uplift  and  vulcanism  tend  to  make 
lands  and  increase  their  altitudes.  Subsidence 
tends  to  submerge  the  lower  lands. 

(c)  Gradation  is  that  process  by  which  winds, 
water,  and  glaciers,  assisted  by  other  physical  and 
chemical  forces,  tend  to  restore  the  lands  to  sea 
level.  Gradation,  then,  works  against  diastrophic 
uplift  and  vulcanism,  and  establishes,  on  a  magnifi- 
cent scale,  a  universal  conflict.  Slowly  mountains 
and  hills  yield  to  the  action  of  weather,  the  loose 
materials  are  carried  by  gravity,  winds,  glaciers 
or  water,  toward  and  into  the  sea,  thus  reducing 
the  altitude  and  sculpturing  the  land  surface  with 
valleys,  gorges  and  canons.  The  moisture  that 
falls  on  mountain  crests  is  always  planing  away 
the  slopes  and  ultimately  only  a  gentle  divide  will 
mark  the  location  of  the  old  range.  This  degrad- 
ing process  ends  when  the  rivers  cut  their  chan- 
nels to  sea-level  and  so  lose  their  ability  to  do  the 
work  of  transportation. 

The  cycle  *  is  a  term  inclusive  of  all  of  the 
changes  wrought  by  the  physiographic  processes 
in  uplifting  a  region  and  subsequently  reducing  it 
to  sea  level.  ]ts  conception  is  the  most  significant 
in  the  whole  physiographic  side  i^\'  geography,  and 
no  teacher  has  made  a  beginning  until  the  idea  is 
grasped  in  its  entirety. 

The  teacher's  intellectual  equipment,  then,  will 

•  Spp   Physical  GrnorapJnj,  Dryer. 


132  TEE   TEACHING   OF   GEOGBAPEY 

vary  directly  according  to  the  number  of  induc- 
tions or  generalizations  made,  and  in  saying  this, 
we  incidentally  give  the  detailed  fact-side  of  sub- 
ject matter  its  rating.  For  further  illustration, 
several  inductions  are  here  given.  If  the  teacher 
can  elaborate  fully,  and  apply  these  and  many 
similar  ones,  it  will  speak  well  for  his  geographical 
equipment. 

1.  Cyclonic  storms  are  of  economic  value  to 
the  Upper  Mississippi  Valley. 

2.  Rivers  are  enemies  of  lakes. 

3.  Increased   population  necessitates   intensi- 

fied industry. 

4.  Rotation  of  crops  does  not  increase  fertility 

of  soil. 

5.  In  our  latitude,  west  coasts  are  warmer. 

6.  Glaciated  areas  abound  in  lakes. 

7.  The  temperature  varies  with  the  altitude  of 
the  sun. 

8.  Cities  are  located  at  breaks  in  transporta- 
tion. 

9.  The  driftless  area  has  a  perfect  drainage 

system. 

10.  Industries  arc  earth  determined. 

11.  Forests  preserve  soils,  and  prevent  floods. 

12.  Illinois  and  Iowa  are  rivals  in  corn  produc- 

tion.   Illinois  markets  much  more  corn. 

II.  A  good  preparation  must  include  the  ability 
to  interpret  geographical  features  in  one's  own  en- 
vironment. How  often  people  are  wholly  oblivious 
to  the  interesting  features  and  processes  of  the 


THE  TEACHER'S  PREPARATION  133 

neighborhood.  This  is  sometimes  true  of  teachers 
whose  "book  knowledge"  is  fairly  adequate.  But 
of  what  value  is  any  science  unless  it  be  applied? 
Geography  and  nature  study  should  never  dete- 
riorate into  mere  formalism.  Their  content  is 
concrete  and  their  worth  depends  upon  their  ap- 
plication. The  wise  teacher  has  an  opportunity  to 
socialize  the  materials  of  geography.  Lessons  on 
soils  may  be  carried  home  and  the  parents  taught 
by  the  children.  The  farmer  may  learn  of  the 
value  of  legumes  in  restoring  nitrogen  to  his  fields, 
and  in  this  and  other  ways,  the  school  may  become 
a  true  social  center.  Should  a  rural  teacher,  on 
his  way  to  school,  observe  that  the  corn  in  a  cer- 
tain field  is  of  light  green  or  yellowish  color,  he 
might  interpret  it  to  mean  insufficient  nitrogen  in 
the  soil,  and  so  advise  with  the  farmer.  Should  ho 
examine  the  clover  roots  and  find  no  tubercles  he 
could  suggest  inoculation. 

The  teacher  who  has  no  love  for  the  stories 
which  "Mother  Nature"  tells  and  who  cannot 
"read  as  he  runs,"  at  least  some  of  the  more  com- 
mon ones,  is  not  prepared  to  interest  children  in 
outdoor  geography.  On  board  of  train,  as  one 
passes  the  dunes  in  Indiana,  cuts  through  the 
moraines  of  Illinois  or  Wisconsin,  rounds  lakes 
and  drumlins,  and  finally  enters  a  valley  walled 
in  by  the  terraced  slopes  of  the  Driftless  Area, 
what  chapters  of  earth  lore  should  pass  through 
his  mind  and  make  travel  truly  a  pleasure! 

Suppose  again  that  one  passes  a  stream  in  Towa 
and  notes  that  the  banks  are  nearlv  on  a  level  with 


134 


TEE   TEACHING   OF   GEOGRAVHY 


the  water  as  shown  in  Fig.  2;  or  crosses  the 
Illinois  and  observes  its  bluffs  and  banks 
as  in  Fig.  3;  and  finally  crossing  the  Fox 
observes  the  features  of  Fig.  4\,  what  interpreta- 
tions will  he  make  explanatory  of  these  varying 
characteristics.1  And  these  are  familiar  and  typi- 
cal aspects  of  the  Upper  Mississippi  valley. 

III.     The  teacher's  preparation  must  include  a 
knowledge  of  books,  maps,  helps  and  simple  ap- 


Typical  Young 

Valley  'Iowa;. 


Ideal  section 
of  Illinois 
river.    (Pre- 
glacial  chan- 
nel.) 


Ideal  section 

cf  Fox  river 

Illinois. 

i  Sub  glacial 

channel.) 


paratns,  useful  in  his  daily  work.  In  order  that 
this  volume  may  be  helpful,  short  bibliographies 
arc  given  at  the  close  of  each  chapter,  and  occa- 
sional references  in  the  context  itself.   The  teacher 


THE  TEACHER  'S  PEE  PAR  A  TIOX 


135 


must  not  only  know  the  sources  of  information — 
but  must  know  how  to  use  them,  as  well.  The 
chapters  on  Maps  and  Models,  and  Weather 
Study,  it  is  hoped,  will  be  suggestive. 

''One  of  the  most  valuable  parts  of  the  geog- 
raphy training  is  the  ability  to  use  reference  books 
accurately,  easily  and  effectively.  This  training 
can  readily  be  given  through  the  use  of  reference 
books  accessible  in  the  school  library.  Only  a  few 
reference  volumes  should  be  used,  and  the  best 
should  be  selected  not  merely  because  they  are  in- 
teresting, but  primarily  because  they  are  geo- 
graphically sound,  information  giving,  and  really 
supplementary  to  the  class-room  lessons,"  * 

Without  referring  especially  to  teaching  ability 
as  a  part  of  a  teacher's  necessary  equipment,  this 
being  quite  fully  treated  elsewhere,  two  other 
{(liases  must  be  noted.  These  are  the  life  side,  and 
the  social  and  economic  side.  The  first  could  be 
best  summed  up  by  saying  that  the  prepared 
teacher  should  know  something  of  the  theory  of 
evolution  to  serve  as  a  guide  in  dealing  with  or- 
ganic responses;  and  from  the  social  side  of  geog- 
raphy, which  includes  commercial  geography,  it 
seems  that  some  knowledge,  at  least,  of  political 
economy  is  absolutely  necessary.  Production, 
transportation  and  consumption  involve  principles 
of  economics,  an  understanding  of  which  adds 
much  to  the  teacher's  efficiency.  Both  of  these 
phases  of  geography  are  treated  at  some  length  in 
other  chapters. 


if  <; 


_rra  |  ihy, 


13G  THE   TEACHING  OF   GEOGRAPHY 

SUGGESTIONS   AND   QUESTIONS. 

1.  What   characteristic   of   geography   makes   broad   scholarship   of 

the  teacher  necessary? 

2.  Why   should   the   teacher   clearly   recognize   the   limits   of   geog 

raphyf 

3.  What  are  the  tests  that  determine  whether  facts  and  materials 

are  geographic? 

4.  What  knowledge  is  fundamental   in  the   teacher's  preparation? 

Why? 

5.  How  best  test  the  teacher's  scholastic,   equipment? 

6.  Why  is  the  teacher's  ability  to  interpret  local  environment  an 

important  acquisition? 

7.  What  knowledge  of  books  ought  a  competent  teacher  to  possess? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY'. 

Redway,    J.    W. — "The    Teacher's     Preparation,    New    Basis     of 

Geography,"  Chap.  XII. 
Emerson,    Philip — "Training    of    Teachers    for    Study    of    Home 

Geography,"  Journal  of  Geography,  Vol.  I,  p.  391. 
Frye,  A.  E. — How  to  Teach  Primary  Geography,  Ginn  &  Go. 
McMurry,   < '.    A. — Special   Method   in   Geography,   The   Macmillan 

( 'ompany. 
Parker,  P.  W. — How  to  Teach  Geography,  D.  Appleton  Go. 


CHAPTER  X. 

Better  Method  in  Geography. 

topics  to  be  considered. 

General  method;  how  determined;  how  better  method  in  geography 
may  be  attained. 

The  empirical  method  in  geography;  no  lack  of  inherent  interest 
in  the  subject;  the  value  of  well  selected  problems. 

An  illustrative  problem;  what  its  solution  involves;  advantages  of 
such  procedure. 

If  the  general  method  be  good,  the  special 
method  can  hardly  be  bad;  indeed,  the  teacher's 
own  "way  of  doing"  things,  his  personality,  must 
count,  else  he  becomes  a  mere  machine  and  his  in- 
struction becomes  purely  formal.  Considerable 
liberty  must  be  assumed  in  the  technique  of  daily 
lesson  plans. 

Again  general  method  should  be  an  outgrowth 
of  the  nature  of  the  subject.  Too  often  educators 
distort  school  subjects  to  exploit  some  conceived 
method  of  presentation.  But  these  warped  defini- 
tions constitute  no  panacea  for  educational  prog- 
ress, and  surely  they  do  not  change  the  nature  of 
school  subjects  !  Whatever  is  eliminated  in  school 
subjects  must  be  discarded  on  the  basis  of  utility, 
not  in  the  narrow  sense,  but  rather  of  utility  as 
a  life  process. 

137 


138  THE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGTi  IPHY 

General  method  in  geography,  then,  is  a  result- 
ant of  three  components,  viz., 

1.  The  intrinsic  nature  of  the  subject. 

2.  The  needs  of  the  individual  in  his  life  rela- 
tionships. 

3.  The  educative  process  through  which  the 
pupil  comes  into  possession  of  these  rela- 
tionships. 

Granting  the  above  theses,  reform  in  general 
method  must  be  wrought  through  instruction 
whose  guiding  principles  require  that — 

1.  Formal  fact  teaching  be  replaced  by  con- 
crete and  significant  principles. 

2.  The  rational  or  causal  element  be  more  gen- 

erally recognized. 

3.  Materials  be  more  fully  evaluated  and  use- 
ful types  selected. 

4.  The  social  phase  receive  more  emphasis. 

5.  Subject  matter  be  presented  in  form  of  per- 

tinent problems  which  pupils  are  to  solve. 

Only  the  last  point  will  be  discussed  since  the 
first  four  deal  with  the  selection  and  emphasis  of 
materials  rather  than  presentation  of  matter. 

That  the  teaching  of  geography  suffers  much  as 
a  result  of  unscientific  method  is  readily  admitted 
by  all  thoughtful  students  of  the  subject.  A  more 
genera!  use  of  geographical  readers  and  maga- 
zines, of  well  selected  illustrative  materials,  to- 
gether with  the  vividness  and  eonereteness  result- 
ing from  well  conducted  excursions,  are  of  great 


BETTER    METHOD    IN    GEOGRAPHY  139 

value  in  giving  new  life  and  interest  to  the  work. 
The  old  and  established  method  of  telling  the 
facts  of  the  science  in  the  laconic  statements  of  the 
brief  text-book,  is  at  best  but  a  mild  way  of  stimu- 
lating mental  activity.  This  latter  method  pours 
a  great  profusion  of  generalized  statements  into 
the  mental  hopper,  but  furnishes  little  motive  for 
their  screening,  milling  and  sifting.  To  receive 
and  to  retain  are  the  assumed  aims  of  this  un- 
scientific or  empirical  method. 

To  make  the  above  clear,  one  or  two  parallels 
are  drawn.  What  interest  would  the  study  of 
arithmetic  excite,  should  the  author  solve  all  of 
the  problems  and  present  the  written  solutions  for 
pupils  to  study/  What  demands  would  such  pro- 
cedure make  upon  the  mind  of  the  pupil  ?  The  best 
teachers  of  mathematics  condemn  the  time-hon- 
ored custom  of  authors  of  geometry  because  too 
much  of  the  work  is  done  for  the  student. 

What  of  the  method  of  teaching  geography? 
Even  with  the  recent  awakening  to  the  possibili- 
ties of  the  subject  and  the  somewhat  improved 
methods  of  presentation,  the  results  are  not  com- 
mensurate with  the  expense  of  time  and  effort. 
Ought  not  the  same  general  method  to  apply  to 
geography  as  applies  to  mathematics  and  science! 
Cannot  the  essentials  be  brought  to  the  pupils  in 
the  form  of  pertinent  problems  which  they  are  to 
solve.' 

In  their  life  experience,  all  are  interested  in 
geography.  Problems  of  production,  transporta- 
tion and  consumption — one    or    ab — affect    every 


140  THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

individual.  Problems  of  agriculture,  forestry,  ir- 
rigation and  road-building  command  universal  in- 
terest and  attention,  yet,  withal,  the  study  of  geog- 
raphy is  generally  formal  and  empirical.  The  dif- 
ficulty lies  in  the  fact  that  the  presentation  is  un- 
pedagogical;  surely  the  subject  matter  is  interest- 
ing. If  pertinent  problems  could  be  so  presented 
to  pupils,  that  their  solutions  would  necessitate  the 
interpretation  of  good  maps,  charts  and  graphs ; 
the  reading  and  sifting  of  selected  articles  in 
newspapers  and  periodicals ;  the  comparison  of 
statements  in  texts  and  reference  books  and  the 
selection  of  a  " consensus  of  opinion";  and  the 
expression  of  results  by  means  of  maps,  models, 
graphs  and  written  essays,  it  seems  that  the  whole 
situation  might  be  changed  for  the  better.  Instead 
of  being  mere  recipients,  pupils  would  then  be 
forced  to  read  carefully;  to  reason,  interpret, 
infer  and  to  express.  The  true  spirit  of  a  student 
might  be  engendered  by  a  procedure  that  rejects 
brief  and  unqualified  statements  and  requires 
pupils  to  compare  authorities,  to  examine  "the 
planes  of  cleavage"  and,  therefore,  to  modify  first 
impressions. 

A  suggestive  problem  suitable  for  the  higher 
grades  is  here  given.  It  is  the  outgrowth  of  actual 
experience  in  teaching. 

Problem:  "What  water  body  furnishes  much 
of  the  moisture  of  the  corn  and  wheat  states? 

A  sixth  grade  class  worked  this  problem  with 
fairly  satisfactory  results,  reaching  the  conclusion 
through  the  steps  indicated  by  the  questions.    No 


BETTER    METHOD    IN    GEOGRAPHY  141 

teaching  was  done  except  that  necessary  to  lead  to 
an  understanding  of  the  particular  problem  in 
hand.  The  only  materials  used  in  this  case  were 
the  Natural  Advanced  Geography  and  the  daily 
Weather  Maps.  The  small  maps  in  the  geography 
were  very  helpful. 

1.  What  transports  moisture  from  seas  to  the 
land?  Why  does  it  often  rain  on  the  windward 
sides  of  the  mountains?  What  causes  precipita- 
tion? How,  then,  does  the  upward  movement  of 
the  air  affect  its  temperature? 

2.  What  is  the  general  direction  of  the  wind 
in  the  regions  of  the  corn  and  wheat  states  ?  (Chil- 
dren are  referred  to  the  wind  charts  in  the  geog- 
raphies, and  to  proper  sections  of  the  text.  A 
motive  has  been  furnished  for  the  understanding 
of  each.) 

3.  Can  the  prevailing  westerlies  transport 
moisture  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  to  the  corn  and 
wheat  states?  Why?  (Verbatim  written  answer 
of  pupil:  "The  prevailing  westerlies  do  not  carry 
moisture  to  the  wheat  and  corn  growing  states  be- 
cause as  they  cross  the  Rocky  Mountains  they  get 
chilled  and  drop  their  moisture  before  they  get  to 
the  wheat  and  corn  growing  states.") 

4.  If  the  winds  blow  in  their  normal  direction, 
can  the  Atlantic  Ocean  furnish  moisture  to  these 
states?  Why?  The  Arctic  Ocean?  The  Gulf  of 
Mexico?    Why? 

5.  Determine  from  the  rainfall  chart  the  an- 
nual rainfall  in  the  Great  Plains.  The  Prairie 
Plains. 


14<!        THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

0.  Consult  the  map  that  shows  the  movement 
of  cyclonic  storms.  How  does  the  storm  affect  the 
surrounding  air  currents?  In  what  direction  does 
the  wind  blow  to  the  north  of  the  storm-center? 
West?  East.7  South?  (Teacher  here  developed 
few  salient  points  concerning-  the  cyclonic  storms, 
but  only  facts  here  needed.)  In  what  direction 
does  the  air  move  in  small  whirl-winds?  AVhen  air 
rises  how  is  its  temperature  affected?  What  would 
occur  if  large  volumes  of  warm  moist  air  should 
rise  ? 

7.  What  change  in  temperature  will  occur  in 
the  winds  that  reach  the  storm  center  from  the 
north  ?  Will  these  winds  absorb  or  deposit  moist- 
ure? (Pupil's  answer:  The  winds  from  the  Hud- 
son Bay  are  cold  and  as  they  go  farther  south  they 
get  warmer  and  keep  their  moisture.) 

8.  Can  the  winds  that  reach  the  storm  center 
from  the  east  bring  much  moisture?  Why?  (Im- 
agine storm  center  to  be  in  central  Iowa.)  Com- 
pare with  winds  from  west. 

9.  The  winds  that  reach  the  storm  center  from 
the  south  cross  what  water  body?  Consult  tem- 
perature chart  and  compare  the  temperature  of 
the  Gulf  Coast  with  Iowa.  (Motive  for  learning 
isotherms.)  What  change  will  occur  in  tempera- 
ture of  winds  that  reach  storm  center  from  the 
south?  Will  these  winds  deposit  or  absorb  moist- 
ure? (Weather  maps  showing  storm  centers  in 
Iowa  given  to  children.  Used  to  verify  inference 
that  cloud  and  rain  areas  are  to  south  and  east  of 
storm  center.)     Cyclonic  storms  cross  Iowa  and 


BETTER    METHOD    IN    GEOGRAPHY  l\:> 

Illinois  with  great  regularity,  especially  in  winter 
months,     Real  conditions  should  be  observed. 

10.  What  indicates  approach  of  storm  from 
west.'  Observe  temperature.  Condition  of  sky, 
rainfall  ( if  any)  that  accompany  a  southeast  wind. 
Observe  same  conditions  as  winds  shift  to  west. 
Repeat  observations.  What  winds  bring  most 
rain  .'     "What  water  body  does  this  wind  cross? 

11.  What  water  body,  then,  is  of  the  greatest 
value  in  furnishing  moisture  to  the  wheat  and 
corn  states  ?  How  did  the  cyclone  help  in  bringing 
the  moisture  ? 

The  introduction  of  problems  in  geography 
serves  to  focalize  the  attention  for  some  time  upon 
an  important  question.  It  furnishes  definite  mo- 
tives which  guide  the  pupil  in  his  study.  The  solu- 
tion of  problems  assists  much  in  the  organization 
of  geographical  facts,  reduces  formal  work  to  a 
minimum,  emphasizes  the  value  of  ideas,  sub- 
stitutes active  investigation  for  passive  reception, 
and.  in  a  general  way,  trains  the  pupil  in  genuine 
habits  of  studv. 


SUGGESTIONS  AND  QUESTIONS. 

1.  Of  what    importance  is  the  selection  of  material  in  geography? 

What   i<  thf  true  basis  for  selection? 

2.  What    is   the  empirical   method  as  applied   to  geography?     Can 

you  justify  such  a  method? 

3.  What  must  any  good  method  take  into  consideration? 

4.  Of  what   advantage  is  the  solution  of  well  selected  problems  in 

teaching  geography? 

5.  Why  has  :he  teaching  of  geography  often  been  inefficient? 


144  THE  TEACHING  OF   GEOGRAPHY 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Hinsdale,  B.  A.— The  Art  of  Study. 

Salisbury,  Eollin  D. — "The  Teaching  of  Geography — -A  Criticism 
and  a  Suggestion."     Educational  Bi-Monthly,  June,  1909. 

Chamberlain,  J.  F. — "Geography  and  Life,"  Elementary  Teacher, 
October,  1897. 

Shaler,  X.  S. — "Practical  Methods  of  Teaching  Geography," 
Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1903,  p.  848. 

Redway,  J.  W— "  Text  Books  of  Geography,"  Ed.  Rev.  Vol.  V., 
p.  153.  "Geographical  Text  Books  and  Geographical  Teach- 
ing," Journal  of  Geography,  A'ol.  11,  p.  360. 


CHAPTER  XL 

An  Inductive  Lesson  in  Geography, 
topics  to  be  considered. 

How  the  inductive  procedure  applies  in  geography;  danger  of 
waste  in  use  of  data;  induction  may  require  time;  relation 
of  induction   to  deduction. 

A  lesson  planned;  problem;  preparation;  presentation;  compari- 
son :   generalization. 

The  lesson  taught;   steps  taken  by  pupils;   results  obtained. 

The  lessons  in  geography  are  largely  inductive. 
This  is  particularly  true  of  the  work  in  the  inter- 
mediate grades.  It  may  he  observed,  however, 
that  the  method  is  not  strictly  scientific.  The 
movement  is  slow.  Often  data,  in  the  form  of 
detailed  fact  or  item,  is  gathered  and  held  for 
some  time  before  comparison  and  generalization 
can  be  accomplished.  Often,  too,  in  the  text  books 
of  geography,  much  information  of  rather  diverse 
nature,  is  presented  with  no  very  clearly  defined 
end  in  view.  It  is  incumbent  upon  the  teacher 
to  gather  this  material  about  definite  centers  and 
to  use  it  in  inducing  general  laws  or  principles. 
Often,  however,  months  elapse  before  children 
shall  have  gathered  sufficient  data  around  some 
center,  to  make  an  induction  safe.  Teachers 
should  realize  that  much  of  the  observational  and 

145 


14G  THE  TEACHING   OF   GEOGRAPHY 

descriptive  work  has  for  its  motive  the  collection 
of  data,  the  assemblage  of  facts,  the  recollection 
and  comparison  of  last  month's  or  even  last  year's 
materials,  for  the  express  purpose  of  establishing 
general  principles.  Otherwise  the  work  is  pur- 
poseless and  empirical,  that  is,  it  is  done  on  the 
assumption  that  somehow,  somewhere,  sometime, 
it  will  fit  into  the  child's  experience  in  a  helpful 
way.  And.  indeed,  it  may,  but  it  will  be  by  mere 
accident  in  some  particular  case.  It  is  safe  to  saj 
that,  unless  it  be  the  conscious  purpose  of  the 
teacher  to  use  this  material  to  a  wise  end,  a  great 
waste  in  education  will  result. 

Although  the  chief  movement  in  lower  grade 
geography  is  inductive,  there  are  not  many  lessons 
that  can  be  consummated  by  the  more  direct  in- 
ductive process.  For  instance,  the  notion  of  the 
world  as  a  whole  is  reached  inductively,  but  only 
after  a  whole  year  of  reconnoitering  journeys  to 
different  parts  of  the  globe.  These  .journeys  are 
suggested  by  home  needs,  and  the  industries  and 
materials  by  which  the  needs  are  satisfied,  furnish 
motives  for  an  introductory  study  of  Brazil  as  a 
coffee-producing  country;  of  France  as  a  silk- 
producing  country;  of  the  Philippine  Islands  as  a 
manila  hemp  and  sugar-producing  region;  and  of 
South  Africa  as  a  diamond-producing  country. 
Thus,  little  by  little,  the  pupil  comes  into  posses- 
sion of  a  series  of  conceptions,  the  last  of  which 
is  the  "world  as  a  whole." 

Induction,  then,  seems  to  be  the  natural  pro- 
cedure in  the  early  work  of  geography.     But  this 


INDUCTIVE  LESSON   IN    GEOGRAPHY 


Wi 


process  of  learning  is  no  end  in  itself.  Neither 
can  it  be  separated  from  deduction,  which  may  be 
termed  the  inverse  inductive  procedure.  The 
writer  conceives  these  educative  processes  to  be 
reciprocally  related;  that  is,  the  inductive  method 
narrows  down  to  the  general,  while  the  deductive 
spreads  out  to  cover  the  particular. 


Many  Particulars   v 
enter  into  the 
Genera]   Pnnnp 


Hr'incipte 

Induction     ;       Deduction 


,/^The  Fhr.ciple 
0       -  vers 

t^T-  Marry  Reticulars 

Application 


It  is  not  thought  that  special  effort  will  be  made 
by  teachers  to  make  the  lessons  in  geography  show 
the  ear-marks  of  method,  but  it  is  believed  that 
skillful  teaching  will  naturally  follow  these 
methods  of  procedure.  Indeed,  the  teacher's 
method  will  become  an  unconscious  guide,  if  the 
principles  of  teaching  have1  been  fully  assimilated. 

Deduction,  then,  is  the  fruit  of  the  inductive 
process.  It  can  hardly  be  called  a  process  by 
itself,  but  is  rather  the  application  of  the  general 
principle  to  which  induction  led.  Without  deduc- 
tion the  process  of  learning  might  become  very 
slow  and  tedious.  Its  application  is  a  more  direct 
method  of  securing  results,  and  is,  therefore,  an 
economical  procedure  in  the  learning  process,  ft 
seems  to  be  a  natural  mental  movement. 


148        THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

In  any  development  lesson  the  art  of  question- 
ing is  of  fundamental  importance,  for  through  the 
questions  the  whole  method-movement  is  deter- 
mined. The  questions  not  only  point  the  way,  but 
they  must  be  put  in  a  manner  that  will  relate  new 
and  old  data,  suggest  likenesses  and  differences 
and  weld  together  all  statements  pertinent  to  the 
problem  in  hand. 

Again  the  movement  of  either  inductive  or  de- 
ductive lessons  must  be  such  as  to  call  for  some 
original  thinking.  All  apt  questions  in  develop- 
ment lessons  will  call  for  initiative  on  the  part  of 
pupils.  The  central  problem  for  the  teacher  is 
"how  best  to  stimulate  the  constructive  thinking 
of  the  pupils  of  the  class;  how  to  induce  in  them 
the  most  educative  self-activity."* 

This  getting  together  of  data  for  the  discovery 
of  a  principle,  or  later,  the  application  of  the 
principle  to  new  cases,  involves  the  comprehension 
of  relationships,  which  are  the  essential  elements 
of  problems. 

The  following  lesson  illustrative  of  the  inductive 
lesson  is  not  given  as  a  ''model."  It  was  planned 
and  taught,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  author,  by 
Professor  Thomas  II.  Gentle,  for  the  sole  purpose 
of  testing  the  inductive  method.  The  condition 
and  the  class  were  average  only.  The  observation 
of  the  lesson  illustrated  one  thing  clearly,  viz.,  that 
a  well  planned  lesson  in  the  hands  of  a  good 
teacher  can  stimulate  a  large  amount  of  original 


EUm<  ntnru  Education   -Ki»ith. 


INDUCTIVE   LESSON    IN    GEOGRAPHY  149 

thought ;  involve  a  large  amount  of  significant  sub- 
ject-matter;  and  direct  the  minds  of  pupils  to  the 
understanding  of  an  important  generalization. 
A  short  synopsis  of  the  plan  is  here  given. 

AX  ILLUSTRATIVE  INDUCTIVE  LESSOX. 

(Planned  for  a  Seventh  Grade.) 

Geographical  principle  to  be  induced:  "The 
location  of  cities  is  often  caused  by  breaks  in 
transportation." 

1.      PRE  PAR  ATI  ox. 

What  is  the  chief  product  of  our  home  region! 
To  what  place  is  it  shipped/  How!  South- 
western Wisconsin  once  produced  much  lead. 
AVhere  was  it  taken?  Why  taken  to  Galena? 
How?  What  did  the  people  of  Galena  do  with  the 
lead  ?  Where  is  Galena  ?  Show  it  on  the  map.  On 
what  river  is  it  located?  Why  not  located  at  the 
mouth  of  La  Fevre  river?  Why  not  at  its  source? 
What  determined  how  far  up  the  river  Galena 
should  be  located?  Then  what  determined  the 
location  of  Galena? 

What  supplies  were  needed  in  the  region  of 
Platteville  in  early  days?  Where  did  the  supplies 
come  from  ?  By  what  route  ?  Trace  the  route. 
What  was  done  with  the  supplies  when  they  had 
been  taken  as  far  by  boat  as  possible?  What 
might  this  transferring  point  become? 

A  few  days  ago  we  learned  that  New  York  is 
the  richest  city  in  America.  Where  is  Xew  York 
City  located?     Point  to  it  on  the  map. 


150  THE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

Pupils'  problem  No.  1.  Let  us  find  out  how 
New  York  City  came  to  be  located  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Hudson  river. 

PRESENTATION. 

From  what  place  did  the  first  settlers  of  New 
York  come  ?  How  did  they  come ?  Were  their 
ships  large?  Could  they  easily  sail  up  the  river? 
Why  not?  Who  inhabited  this  region  when  the 
white  men  came  ?  How  did  the  Indian  get  his 
living?  Did  he  have  any  products  which  the  white 
men  might  want?  What?  Where  could  the  white 
man  sell  the  furs  ?  What  could  he  give  the  Indian 
in  exchange  for  them?  Where  were  the  ''trinkets'' 
secured?  How  could  the  Indians  get  their  furs 
to  the  white  men?  Could  the  white  men  reach 
the  Indians  in  the  ocean  ship?  Could  the  Indians 
reach  the  ocean  ships  in  their  canoes?  Where, 
then,  could  the  white  men  and  Indians  best  meet 
to  trade?  What  might  you  call  such  a  point? 
What  do  we  find  there  today?  Then  what  deter- 
mined the  location  of  New  York  City? 

II.       PREPARATION. 

How  many  have  ever  been  to  the  Mississippi 
river?  What  did  you  see  while  there?  (Steam- 
boat.) Where  was  it  going?  Es  St.  Paul  a  large 
city?  With  what  was  the  boat  loaded.'  Did  yon 
notice  any  railroads  near  the  river?  How  many? 
Did  they  have  anything  to  do  with  the  decrease 


INDUCTIVE  LESSON   IN    GEOGRAPHY 


151 


of  river  traffic?     How  so?     Where   is   St.   Paul 
located ?    Point  to  it  on  the  map. 

Pupils'  problem  No.  2.     Let  us  find  out  why 
St.  Paul  is  located  where  it  is. 

PRESENTATION. 

Who  formerly  lived  in  the  region  about  St. 
Paul?  Why?  What  attracted  white  people? 
From  what  direction  did  the  white  fur  traders 
come  ?  Did  the  white  traders  and  the  Indians 
have  definite  meeting  places?  Point  out  one  on 
the  map.  Why  there?  What  might  we  call  this 
point?  How  did  the  traders  procure  the  furs? 
What  did  they  give  the  Indians  in  return  ?  Show 
on  the  ma})  how  the  traders  returned  from  the 
region. 

Later,  lumbermen  and  settlers  came  into  the 
country  about  St.  Paul.  What  did  these  people 
need  to  carry  on  their  work?  How  could  the  sup- 
plies reach  them?  Trace  the  route  on  the  map. 
What  might  you  call  the  transferring  point? 
How,  then,  was  this  point  located? 

III.       PREPARATION. 

How  many  have  ever  visited  Chicago?  Name 
interesting  things  you  saw  there.  Here  is  a  large 
map  of  Illinois.  Find  the  Chicago  river.  Locate 
the  city. 

Pupils'  problem  Xo.  3.  Let  us  find  out  why 
Chicago  was  located  at  this  place. 


152  THE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

PRESENTATION. 

A  long  time  ago  a  missionary  visited  the  Missis- 
sippi valley.  lie  died  where  Chicago  now  stands. 
You  learned  about  him  in  the  fourth  grade.  Who 
was  he?  Tell  about  his  journey  to  the  Mississippi 
river.  Some  years  after,  a  French  trader  came  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Chicago  river  and  bought  a  cabin 
which  he  found  there.  Was  it  an  excellent 
place  for  fur  trade?  Why?  From  what  region 
could  he  collect  furs?  How  could  the  Indians 
bring  them  to  him?  Where  could  he  dispose  of 
them?  How  could  he  send  them  away?  What  did 
this  make  of  the  point  where  the  trader  lived? 
W  nat  made  the  post  grow  larger? 

From  what  regions  do  railroads  now  enter  Chi- 
cago? Why  are  they  needed?  What  do  they 
carry  to  the  city?  "What  do  they  take  away  ]  Does 
this  trade  make  the  city  grow?    Why? 

IV.       COMPARISON    AND    GENERALIZATION. 

Let  us  now  compare  these  three  places  which  we 
have  studied,  to  see  if  we  can  find  one  thing  true 
of  all  of  them. 

In  the  case  of  Xew  York  what  were  the  white 
men  forced  to  do  with  the  supplies  and  trinkets 
they  brought  to  the  region  for  the  settlers  and  the 
Indians?  (Land  them.)  What  did  the  Indian 
have  to  do  with  his  furs?  Could  he  carry  them 
further  than  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  river?  In 
this  regard  examine  both  St.  Paul  and  Chicago, 
What  do  we  find  true  of  all? 


INDUCTIVE  LESSON   IN   GEOGBAPEY  153 

At  this  point  the  pupils  will  give  a  crude  general 
statement,  possibly  something  like  this: 

11  In  each  ease  we  see  that  the  white  trader 
brought  his  things  as  far  as  he  could  without 
unloading  and  that  the  Indian  brought  his  furs  as 
near  the  trader  as  he  could  without  unloading. 
These  points  were  near  together.  Between  them 
a  trading  post  was  made  and  later  a  town  grew." 

The  following  questions  may  be  asked  about  the 
general  statement  in  order  to  throw  it  into  the 
technical  form : 

AY  hat  obstruction,  then,  intervened  in  the  routes 
of  transportation  for  the  white  man's  goods  ?  The 
Indian's  routes?  (Breaks.)  AVhat  do  breaks  in 
transportation  cause?  AVhat  determined  the  loca- 
tion of  New  York  City?  AVhy  has  it  since  become 
so  large?  AVhat  determined  the  location  of  St. 
Paul .'  Of  Chicago  ?  AVhy  have  they  become  large 
cities?  AVhat  sometimes  determines  the  location 
of  cities  ? 

If  it  is  decided  (and  it  is  almost  mandatory)  to 
carry  this  principle  through  its  deductive  phase, 
the  mode  of  procedure  may  be  seen  in  the  Deduc- 
tive Lesson  in  the  next  chapter. 


SUGGESTIONS  AND  QUESTIONS. 
1.   To    what    extent    is    the    inductive   procedure    practical   in   geog- 
raphy .' 
i!.    What    importance  attaches   to   data   in   geography? 
,'■!.   How   may   waste   occur   in   teaching  geography? 
4.    How  would  you  plan  an  inductive  lesson? 
■">.    How  is  induction  related  to  deduction? 
(5.  Discuss  the  illustrative  lesson. 


154  TEE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Bagley,  W.  C. — The  Educative  Process,  Chapter  XIX. 

Roark,  T\.   N. — Method  in   Education,  p.  32. 

Mt-Murry,  C.  A. —  The  Method  of  the  Recitation,  Chapter  Xi. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

A  Deductive  Development  Lesson. 
Torres  to  be  considered. 

The  deductive  development  lesson;  steps:  (a)  the  securing  of 
data,  (b)  the  recalling  of  principles,  (c)  the  making  of 
inferences,  and  (d)  the  verifying  of  inferences. 

A  deductive  lesson  presupposes  the  possession 
of  genera]  notions  or  principles,  for  without  their 
use  a  deductive  procedure  is  impossible.  Hence 
deductive  lessons  follow  the  inductive  and  form 
the  application  of  the  induced  principle.  The  gen- 
eral notion  plays  an  important  role  in  geographi- 
cal study  since  it  is  a  sort  of  "try  square"  by 
which  we  take  the  measure,  as  it  were,  of  the  new 
material.  If  the  "lit"  seems  fairly  satisfactory, 
we  make  an  inference  which  is  quite  likely  to  be 
correct.  Verification  can  be  made  by  reference  to 
text  or  reference  books.  The  deductive  lesson  is 
a  short  cut  and  therefore  rapid  and  economical.  It 
incidentally  affords  drill  on  already  comprehended 
principles. 

A  careful  study  of  the  following  lesson  will  show 
clearly  the  movement  of  a  deductive  lesson. 

Problem:  Why  is  the  winter  temperature  on 
the  coast  of  Washington  and  Oregon  so  warm? 

155 


156  THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

I.       EXERCISE    TO    SECURE    DATA. 

1.  Locate  these  states  on  a  good  political  map. 
What  is  the  latitude  of  Portland,  Oregon?  Com- 
pare with  latitude  of  Portland,  Maine.  Compare 
the  latitude  of  Seattle  with  the  latitude  of  Duluth, 
Minnesota.    AVith  Moscow,  Russia. 

2.  From  an  isothermic  chart  (if  not  found  in 
the  geography,  Longman's  New  School  Atlas  will 
furnish  the  data)  find  the  January  isotherm  for 
Portland,  Oregon?  For  Portland,  Maine?  Which 
is  warmer?  How  many  degrees?  In  like  manner 
compare  Seattle,  Washington,  with  Duluth,  Min- 
nesota. Compare  the  January  temperatures  of 
Seattle  and  Quebec.  Of  Seattle  and  Moscow,  Rus- 
sia.   Of  Duluth  and  Moscow. 

3.  From  a  good  relief  map  of  United  States, 
determine  the  altitude  of  Seattle.  Compare  with 
the  altitude  of  Duluth.  Compare  with  the  altitude 
of  Portland,  Oregon,  and  Portland,  Maine.  In 
either  case  is  there  much  difference?  What  is  the 
altitude  of  Moscow? 

4.  From  a  good  temperature  chart  find  the  an- 
nual range  in  temperature  for  Seattle,  for  Port- 
land, Oregon,  for  Duluth,  and  for  Portland, 
Maine.  Compare  the  July  temperatures  of  Seat- 
tle and  Duluth.  Of  the  two  Portlands,  which  has 
the  greater  differences  between  .January  and  July 
temporal  ures  .' 

5.  From  a  rain  chart  determine  the  annual  pre- 
cipitation in  cadi  of  the  above  cities.  What  is  the 
annual  rainfall  in  Seattle.'      In   Duluth?     In  Que- 


DEDUCTIVE   LESSON   IN   GEOGRAPHY  157 

bee?  Head  your  text  to  determine,  if  possible,  if 
the  moisture  iu  Portland,  Oregon,  and  Seattle  is 
distributed  throughout  the  year  or  precipitated  in 
a  certain  season?  (The  rainfall  lessons  may  here 
be  recalled.)  Is  the  rainfall  distributed  through- 
out the  year  in  Duluth?  In  Portland,  Maine? 
From  the  relief  map  show  that  the  conditions 
favor  heavy  winter  rains  at  Seattle. 

G.  What  are  the  prevailing  winds  of  Portland, 
Oregon,  and  of  Seattle?  Of  Duluth?  Of  Quebec  1 
Of  Portland,  Maine?    Of  Moscow? 

7.  Note  carefully  the  location  of  each  of  these 
cities  with  reference  to  large  water-bodies. 

II.       REVIEW  TO  RECALL  PRINCIPLES. 

1.  Other  things  being  equal,  do  changes  in  lati- 
tude cause  changes  in  climatic  temperature?  In 
this  case  can  you  attribute  differences  in  winter 
temperature  to  differences  in  latitude? 

2.  What  effect  does  altitude  have  upon  tem- 
perature? Could  the  difference  in  winter  temper- 
ature between  the  Portlands  be  due  to  altitude? 
Could  the  difference  in  the  case  of  Seattle  and 
Duluth  be  due  to  altitude?  Answer  for  Seattle 
and  Moscow,  in  comparing  the  winter  tempera- 
tures of  Seattle  and  Portland,  Oregon,  with  Du- 
luth, and  Portland,  Maine,  respectively,  can  you 
attribute  differences  to  variations  in  altitude? 

.'}.  What  effect  do  water  bodies  have  on  the 
winter  temperatures  of  adjacent  lands?  What 
medium  transports  heat  in  winter  from  sea  to 
land?     Make  a  small  sketch  map  of  AVestern  Ore- 


158        THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

gon  and  Washington  including  the  region  of  the 
Cascade  Mountains.  Show  by  arrows  the  direc- 
tion of  the  winter  winds  that  blow  from  the  Pacific 
Ocean  over  this  region.  Are  the  conditions  favor- 
able for  making  the  winter  climate  warmer  ?  Make 
small  sketch  maps  of  Duluth  and  Portland, 
Maine,  and  insert  the  arrows  to  show  wind  direc- 
tions. In  the  case  of  Duluth  do  the  conditions 
favor  a  higher  winter  temperature?  In  the  case 
of  Portland,  Maine  ?  For  a  comparatively  high 
winter  temperature  in  the  latitude  of  Seattle 
should  a  region  be  on  the  east  or  west  side  of  a 
water  body  ? 

4-.  How  does  condensing  steam  affect  adjacent 
bodies?  Where  does  the  heat  come  from?  How 
do  freezing  water  bodies  affect  adjacent  lands? 
When  the  moisture  of  clouds  condenses,  is  heat 
set  free?  What  effect,  then,  will  daily  rains  have 
on  the  temperature  of  a  region? 

III.       MAKE   THE  INFERENCES. 

The  comparatively  high  winter  temperature 
on  the  coast  of  Washington  and  Oregon  is  due: 

J.  To  the  warm  winds  from  the  Pacific  Ocean 
that  bathe  the  region  during  the  winter  months. 

2.  To  the  heat  that  comes  from  the  rapid  con- 
densation of  moisture,  rain  falling  almost  daily. 

IV.       VERIFY    THE    INFERENCES. 

Consult  your  text  books  and  select  as  many 
statements  as  possible  that  seem  to  verify  your 
inferences.  Pefer  to  a  text,  book  on  meteorology, 
if  possible. 


DEDUCTIVE    DEVELOPMENT   LESSON  159 

(The  ordinary  geography,  especially  the  older 
editions,  are  still  teaching-  the  almost  preposter- 
ous theory  that  the  Japan  current  is  responsible 
for  the  high  temperature  of  the  Pacific  Coast  win- 
ters. This  theory  is  untenable  as  is  also  its  ap- 
plication to  the  Gulf  stream's  influence  on  the 
western  coast  of  Europe.  Prof.  Henry  Gannett 
of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  denies  that  the 
Japan  current  even  touches  Xorth  America,  and 
states  that  such  a  current,  even  if  it  did  bathe 
the  continent,  would  not  be  warm  after  a  journey 
of  6,000  miles  in  polar  seas.  See  "Journal  of 
Geography,"  vol.  I,  p.  157.) 


SUGGESTIONS  AND  QUESTIONS. 
1.  What   does  a   deductive  lesson   presuppose? 
l'.    Fur  what  purpose  is  data  secured? 
,'i.    How   is  tho   inference  made? 

4.   Through   what   means   can   the  inferences   be  verified? 
.1.   To  what  extent  ran  deductive  procedure  be  employed? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Emerson,  Philip — ''Training  of  Teachers  for  Study  of  Home 
Geography,*'  Jour,  of  Geography,  Nov.,  1902. 

Redway,  .1.  W. — The  New  Basis  <</'  Geography. 

\IcMurry,  < '.  A. — Special  Method  in  Geography. 

Tarr,  Whitbeck,  Jefferson,  Profs. — "Results  to  Be  Expected  from 
a  School  Course  in  Geography,"  Jour,  of  Geography,  Apr., 
1905. 

King,  Chas.  F. — Methods  and  Aids  in  Geography. 

Bagley,  W.  C. —  The  Educative  Process,  ('hap.  XX. 

Dodge  and  Kirchwey — "Geography  in  the  Horace  Mann  Schools,"' 
Teachers'  College  Record,  March,   1901. 

Taylor,  Joseph  S. — ''Principles  and  Methods  of  Geography  Teach- 
ing,"   Ed.   Foundations,  June  and   Sept.,   1909, 

Rooper,  T.  G. — "On  Mel  hods  of  Teaching  Geography,"  Jour,  of 
Geography,  Feb.,   1902. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

Regional  Geography, 
topics  to  be  considered. 

Geographical  facts  must  be  systematized;  in  studying  countries  a 
unit  must  be  selected ;  the  physiographic  region  recommended. 

The  advantages  of  the  regional  unit ;  how  it  helps  in  organizing 
the  materials  of  geography;  its  economy  over  a  political  unit; 
summary  of  argument. 

The  selection  of  material  and  its  elaboration  are 
two  very  important  questions  which  confront 
every  teacher  of  geography.  In  the  matter  of 
selection  that  which  is  fundamental  should  guide. 
There  is  such  an  unlimited  amount  of  geograph- 
ical material  that,  unless  the  teacher  deals  with 
general  principles,  he  is  in  danger  of  being  lost  in 
the  maze  of  detail.  The  notion  that  one  must 
know  all  of  the  individual  facts  relating  to 
location  is  not  the  true  test  of  geographical  knowl- 
edge. Geographical  information  must,  in  the  end, 
})e  systematized — thrown  into  general  categories 
and  linked  together  by  some  general  principle 
which  shall  be  the  basis  of  organization.  If  the 
student  understands  the  principle  and  can  give 
concrete  illustrations,  his  knowledge  of  geography 
may  be  quite  comprehensive,  even  though  there 
may  be  very  many  items  and  facts  quite  interest- 

ir,o 


REGIONAL    GE0GRAF11Y  161 

ing  in  themselves,  of  which  he  is  entirely  ignorant. 
In  selecting  topics  for  study  the  teacher  must  be 
sure  that  they  are  characteristic,  far-reaching  and 
typical.  Whatever  he  emphasizes  should  be  ap- 
plicable to  some  other  topic.  A  mere  fact  which 
cannot  be  used  to  explain  or  give  significance  to 
some  other  fact  or  serve  as  a  datum  of  induction, 
is  only  a  burden  to  the  mind.  In  geography,  as  in 
mathematics,  the  principle  is  the  all-important 
thing.  These  principles  will  appear  again  and 
again  in  the  study  of  different  topics  in  different 
regions.  When  the  pupil  has  mastered  the  prin- 
ciple, the  mere  recognition  of  it  will  suffice  in  the 
new  topic.  One  great  difficulty  which  has  con- 
fronted the  student  in  the  past  is  the  vast  number 
of  topics  which  seems  to  demand  treatment.  Our 
best  scholars  have  come  to  recognize  the  physio- 
graphic region  as  the  best  unit  for  study.  Such 
a  region  is  homogeneous  in  structure  and  physio- 
graphic controls.  It  offers  the  advantage  also  of 
being,  in  most  cases,  a  larger  unit  than  one  en- 
closed by  political  boundaries.  A  physiographic 
region  may  include  several  of  many  political  units, 
and  instead  of  making  a  study  of  the  controls  of 
each  separate  political  unit  and  associating  these 
controls  in  each  case  with  the  political  unit,  the 
study  of  structure,  surface,  soil,  temperature,  and 
winds  may  be  worked  out  once  for  all  and  applied 
to  the  whole  region.  Much  economy  would  result 
from  a  more  general  recognition  of  this  unit  in  the 
study  of  geography.  Our  newest  and  best  books 
sludv  countries  bv    regions,    and  the  advantage 


162  THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGEAPHY 

which  comes  to  teacher  and  student  alike,  by  use 
of  an  areal  unit  in  simplifying  geographical  in- 
formation, is  great.  The  study  of  the  United 
States,  for  instance,  might  be  centered  about  eight 
or  ten  regional  studies  and  by  this  means  much 
more  time  be  given  to  elaboration  than  would  oth- 
erwise be  possible.  Facts  for  their  own  sake  can- 
not always  be  justified.  Elaboration  is  useful  and 
essential  in  tying  together  and  relating  the  vari- 
ous factors  which  have  had  to  do  in  making  the 
earth  and  its  people  what  they  are.  Only  when 
the  teacher  or  student  has  discovered  these  fac- 
tors and  has  traced  each  one  of  them  carefully  to 
see  how  it  has  influenced  earth  or  man,  and  has 
discovered,  also,  how  it  has  worked  with  or 
against  other  forces  either  natural  or  human,  has 
he  carried  elaboration  as  far  as  it  is  profitable. 
Principles  are  not  a  burden  to  the  mind,  but  are 
helpful  in  explaining  observed  phenomena,  and 
are  a  source  of  power  and  of  pleasure  to  the  stu- 
dent. Elaborations,  if  properly  made,  bring  out 
the  principle  and  give  it  a  distinct  central  setting. 
Details  may  cluster  about  this  center  and  be  val- 
uable as  illustrations,  but  any  one  is  not  indispen- 
sable. Indeed,  there  are  so  many  facts  that  it  is 
quite  impossible  for  the  student  to  know  all.  and 
frequently  there  is  but  little  choice  from  the 
standpoint  of  utility  which  one  of  several  the  stu- 
dent should  learn.  The  selection  of  the  larger 
unit  of  study  avoids  needless  repetition,  assists 
in  better  organization  of  material,  enables  a  more 
complete  elaboration,  and  permits  of  a  more  sei- 


REGIONAL    GEOGRAPHY  163 

entiflc  treatment,  since  a  regional  study  brings 
the  physiographic  and  ontographic  factors  into 
the  most  systematic  relationships.  R.  E.  Dodge, 
in  speaking  of  geography  for  secondary  schools,* 
uses  these  words: 

''The  regional  geography  of  the  future  will  be 
a  course  taught  scientifically  and  causally,  and 
will  include  a  special  consideration  of  the  com- 
mercial geography  of  areas  and  nations.  Thus 
the  essential  elements  of  physical  geography  will 
be  taught  as  a  basis  for  studying  the  man-and- 
life  side  of  the  subject,  and  physical  geography 
will  by  no  means  be  entirely  overthrown.  The 
point  of  view  will  be  different  from  the  point  of 
view  in  reference  to  that  subject  held  at  present. 
Physical  geography  will  not  be  taught  as  an  end 
i7i  itself,  but  as  a  means  to  an  end.  Selected  parts 
of  the  whole  field  will  be  studied  as  fully  as  needs 
warrant  and  as  scientifically  as  now,  but  always 
in  order  that  the  application  of  the  selected  facts 
and  principles  may  be  given  in  a  careful  study  of 
the  larger  geography  of  given  areas  and  regions. 
This  study  will  involve  the  use  of  texts,  maps  and 
atlases,  will  be  strong  in  laboratory  work,  will  in- 
clude the  elements  of  political  and  commercial 
geography,  and  will  be  well  knit  into  a  united 
whole.  Such  a  course,  or  one  on  closely  similar 
lines,  will  have  all  the  strength  of  the  present 
work  in  physical  geography,  but  will  be  more  valu- 
able as  a  part  of  a  secondary  course  than  any 
specialized  phase  of  the  subject  of  geography  can 

*  "Educational  Bi-Monthrv,     June,   1009. 


1G4  TEE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGEAPHY 

be.  Regional  geography  for  secondary  schools 
will  not  be  a  thing  of  'shreds  and  patches';  it 
will  not  be  feebly  related  facts  and  semi-useful 
statistics,  easy  to  learn  and  equally  easy  to  forget. 
It  will  be  a  disciplinary  subject  of  great  worth  in 
the  education  of  any  person  of  secondary  age." 
And  is  not  this  equally  true  of  the  regional  treat- 
ments in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  ? 

The  argument  for  a  regional  treatment  in  the 
higher  grades,  as  seen  by  the  author,  are  these: 

1.  The  units  are  larger  and  "scrappiness"  is 
avoided. 

2.  There  is  economy  of  time.     Often  the  geo- 

graphical facts  relating  to  a  small  political 
unit  are  equally  true  of  a  large  physio- 
graphic region. 

3.  The  treatment  is  more  scientific,  the  two 
great  phases  of  geography,  the  physical 
and  ontological,  being  ideally  correlated. 

4.  Because  of  the  above,  the  organization  is 

close  and  strong,  the  organizing  principles 
being  the  causal  or  rational  idea  or  ele- 
ment.* 

5.  The  physiographic  region  is  the  natural  and 
logical  unit  for  study. 


SUGGESTIONS!  AND  QUESTIONS. 

1.  What    has    been    recommended    as    an    organizing    principle    of 

geography? 

2.  How   can   a    regional   unit   help  in   the   process   of  organization? 

*  See  Chapter  III. 


REGIONAL    GEOGRAPHY  165 

3.  What  is  a  physiographic  region? 

4.  What  advantages  does  the  physiographic  region  offer  over  the 

polit  ical  unit  .' 

5.  Does  the  regional  unit  provide  a  special  opportunity  for  asso- 

ciating cause  and  effect? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Powell,   .1.   W. — "Physiographic   Regions   of  the   United   States," 

Physiography  of  United  States,  p.  65. 
Trotter,  Spencer — Geography  of  Commerce,  Chap.  V, 
Russell.  I.  C. — North  America. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

Generalization  and  Organization  of  Geograph- 
ical  Materials.     The   Causal   Elements. 

topics  to  be  considered. 

Why  organization  is  important;  lack  of  organization  in  the  old 
geography;  the  causal  element  emphasized  in  the  new  geog- 
raphy; the  organizing  principle  of  geography. 

The  reaction  against  formalism  in  education;  how  the  facts  and 
items  of  geography  function  in  generalizations;  the  value  of 
generalizations. 

It  is  the  conviction  of  the  writer  that  there  is 
no  failure  in  teaching  more  serious  than  the  fail- 
ure to  generalize.  The  character  of  certain  sub- 
jects, and  the  method  of  instruction,  make  them 
especially  subject  to  such  omission.  Geography 
is  exceedingly  liable  to  suffer  from  the  teacher's 
neglect  to  organize  and  generalize.  The  climax  of 
all  good  teaching  is  reached  in  these  processes, 
and  any  instruction  that  stops  short  of  them  fails 
accordingly. 

In  a  deductive  study,  like  geometry,  every  con- 
clusion is  a  general  truth,  not  only  applicable  to 
but  necessary  in  any  further  development  of  the 
subject.  Each  conclusion  is  a  premise  in  a  suc- 
ceeding theorem;  the  subject  tends  to  unify  itself. 
Inductive  studies  place  more  responsibility  upon 

IfiR 


GENERALIZATION    AND    ORGAN IZATIOS  167 

the  teacher.  Because  the  content  of  geography 
is  so  broad  and  varied,  and  because  its  nature, 
phase,  and  values  have  been  so  poorly  understood, 
it  has  doubtless  suffered  more  from  a  lack  of 
organization  than  any  of  the  common  school  sub- 
jects. 

The  old  geography  devoted  itself  almost  wholly 
to  fact  study.  Vast  numbers  of  items  were  learned 
empirically,  as  ends  in  themselves.  There  was  so 
little  sequence,  aim  and  reason  in  the  subject  that 
it  fell  far  short  of  a  science.  It  was  composed  of 
cross-sections  of  geology,  astronomy,  zoology, 
botany,  etc.,  but  the  subject-matter  was  not  articu- 
lated for  a  purpose.  The  old  question  of  "what 
and  where  are  the  following"  is  suggestive.  Iso- 
lated and  unrelated  facts,  interesting  in  them- 
selves but  often  valueless,  because  they  did  not 
bear  upon  any  generalization,  engaged  the  atten- 
tion of  the  student. 

The  New  Geography  involves  a  strong  rational 
element.  The  study  of  any  region  necessitates  the 
consideration  of  three  sets  of  factors  or  processes. 
These  may  be  designated  as  inorganic,  dynamic 
and  organic.  The  inorganic  phase  considers  the 
earth's  envelopes  in  static  conditions — as  the 
crust,  its  topography,  rocks,  soils,  minerals,  the 
atmospheric  and  aqueous  envelopes  as  related  to 
rock-weathering  and  oxidation,  and  to  plant  and 
animal  life.  The  dynamic  deals  with  the  inter- 
action of  these  envelopes  as  influenced  by  heat, 
gravity  and  planetary  motion.  This  phase  in- 
cludes the  subject  usuallv  treated  in  dvnamic  u'eol- 


168        THE   TEACHING  OE  GEOGRAPHY 

ogy.  The  organic  deals  with  life  as  fostered  by 
particular  combinations  of  local  influences. 

It  may  be  said  by  some  that  these  limits  are  too 
broad,  but  any  adequate  study  of  a  man's  environ- 
ment leads  to  all  of  these  investigations.  If  mere 
fact  is  the  goal  of  geographical  study,  then  the 
"why."  the  rational  side  of  geography,  may  be 
lopped  off,  and  we  shall  then  return  to  the  old 
basis  of  teaching  the  subject.  If,  however,  an 
understanding  of  the  earth  as  a  habitat  is  the  ob- 
ject of  geographical  study,  then  certainly  much 
value  must  be  x>laced  upon  reason  and  relation- 
ship. 

AVithout  taking  cognizance  of  the  causal 
idea,  it  would  be  quite  impossible  to  organize 
the  subject-matter  of  geography.  Careful  selec- 
tion and  arrangement  of  data  must  precede  induc- 
tion, inference,  conclusion.  The  rational  element 
is  llif  thread  upon  which  the  facts  are  strung. 
The  empirical  facts  of  the  old  geography  were 
lost  as  readily  as  beads  from  a  broken  string,  but 
perhaps  the  loss  was  not  great  because  facts 
learned  after  such  manner  are  insignificant.  Sig- 
nificance conies  when  order  is  established,  when, 
as  Dr.  Harris  says,  one  fact  is  made  to  explain  an- 
other to  which  it  is  related.  An  arrangement  of 
facts  to  show  logical  sequence  is  organization.  It 
assists  the  memory,  clarifies  and  intensifies  the 
meaning,  and  leads  toward  a  classification  of  geo- 
graphic material. 

Men  succeed  best  in  industrial  life  when  they 
best  adjust  themselves  to  their  environment.     To 


GENERALIZATION    AND    ORGAN 1ZAT10\  169 

some  degree  man  may  modify  an  unfavorable 
condition ;  that  being  done,  the  best  adjustment  is 
effected  when  human  effort  is  applied  most  har- 
moniously to  the  remaining  natural  conditions. 
Failure  to  succeed  follows  a  failure  to  interpret 
natural  conditions  aright.  The  poor  success  of 
the  early  Puritans  is  an  apt  illustration  of  a  poor 
adjustment  to  physiographic  conditions.  The  in- 
fluence of  geography  on  political  and  industrial 
history  is  now  generally  conceded.  It  is  to  this 
theme  that  Prof.  Brigham  and  Miss  Semple  have 
so  successfully  lent  themselves,  and  scores  of  ex- 
amples could  be  given  to  show  how  natural  re- 
sources and  environment  have  eventually  deter- 
mined man's  residence  and  occupation.  The  study 
of  adjustment  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  and 
fruitful  phases  of  geography,  and  emphasizes 
strongly  the  rational  element.  It  is  held  by  some 
that  in  seeking  causes  there  is  danger  in  going 
beyond  the  limits  of  geography  proper  and  enter- 
ing the  domain  of  pure  science.  If  a  bit  of  science, 
is  here  or  there  necessary  to  explain  a  condition, 
then  let  it  strike  sharply  against  the  geographical 
fact  of  which  it  becomes  a  legitimate  part,  stand- 
ing in  the  relation  of  cause  to  effect. 

Modern  educational  methods  react  against 
formalism.  The  repetition  of  rules  and  formula? 
is  now  subordinate  and  incidental  to  a  comprehen- 
sion of  ideas.  The  laboratory  method  in  science 
has  substituted  for  the  "letter  that  killeth"  the 
"spirit  which  maketh  alive."  Even  the  study  of 
a  language,  with  its  multiplicity  of  forms,  is  sue- 


170        THE    TEACHING  OF  GEOGEAFHY 

cessfully  approached  from  the  thought  side.  Why 
should  facts  in  geography  be  taught  arbitrarily? 
The  whole  subject  of  physiography  has  to  do  with 
cause,  and  the  responses  of  the  organic  world  are 
results  or  effects  of  certain  local  sets  of  condi- 
tions. Thus,  the  causal,  or  the  rational,  is  prom- 
inent throughout  the  subject  of  geography.  Is 
not,  then,  this  element  the  logical  basis  for  organ- 
ization ?  The  value  of  types  is  manifest  here  as 
in  other  departments  of  science.  But  a  type  is 
only  a  concrete  illustration  of  a  general  principle 
which  obtains,  in  slightly  modified  form,  in  a  mul- 
titude of  instances.  Its  value  lies  in  the  fact  that 
the  student,  through  cursory  examination  and 
hasty  comparison  of  the  new  example,  recognizes 
the  principle  and  classifies  his  information. 

Unorganized  geographical  material  has  but  lit- 
tle value  and  significance.  The  educational  value 
of  geography  increases  as  the  rational  element 
is  recognized.  The  work  of  the  earlier  geography 
is,  indeed,  to  observe,  to  learn  facts,  and  to  gather 
material ;  though  to  some  extent,  even  in  this 
phase,  the  causal  idea  may  be  recognized.  When, 
however,  considerable  information  along  various 
lines  has  been  gained,  it  seems  to  be  the  true  func- 
tion of  geography  to  induce  from  this  information 
as  data  definite  principles.  The  student  may  still 
continue  to  gather  and  learn  facts,  but  the  time 
has  come  when  he  should  have  a  place  to  put  these 
facts  in  orderly  arrangement.  This  comparing 
and  relating  of  data  to  strengthen  and  clarify 
meaning  and  to  establish  general  principles  which 


GENERALIZATION    AND    ORGANIZATION  171 

shall  serve  as  categories  for  the  reception  of  new 
material  constitute  organization  as  applied  to 
geography.  A  student  who  has  mastered  a  few 
general  principles  may  then  proceed  to  some  ex- 
tent in  a  deductive  way.  Knowing  a  few  general 
truths  relating  to  a  region,  he  should  he  able  to 
deduce  with  considerable  accuracy  the  details  of 
life  conditions  that  prevail,  and,  looking  back- 
ward, he  should  be  able  to  read  in  outline  its  geo- 
logical history.  Is  it  not  obvious,  then,  that  the 
rational  element,  viz.,  reason  and  relationship, 
should  be  the  major  organizing  principle  of  geog- 
raphy and  that  with  the  recognition  of  this  prin- 
ciple will  increase  the  educational  value  of  the 
subject .' 


SUGGESTIONS  AND  QUESTIONS. 

1.  Why  is  the  process  of  generalizing  important  in  education? 

2.  What  has  been  the  chief  cause  of  failure  in  geography  teaching? 
o.   Why  is  organization  especially  important  in  geography? 

4.   How  can  formalism  Vie  avoided  in  teaching  geography? 
;".   What  is  the  organizing  principle  in  geography? 
G.   How  can   generalizations  once  made  be  used  in  succeeding  les- 
sons .'      Illustrate. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Davis.    W.     M. — ''The    Rational    Element    in    Geography,"    Nat. 

Gcog.  Mag..  Vol.  X. 
Sutherland.    W.    J. — ''The    Rational    Element    as    an    Organizing 

Principle  m  Geography,-'  Jour,  of  Geog.,  Mar.,  1905. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

The  Use  of  Text  Books. 

TOPICS  TO  BE  CONSIDERED. 

What  constitutes  a  wise  use  of  text  books;  a  bad  use;  the  char- 
acter of  text  books;  the  importance  of  good  assignments; 
danger  of  committing  meaningless  statements;  effect  on 
pupils. 

Illustrative  assignments;  the  value  of  problems;  how  to  secure 
initiative  on  the  part  of  pupils;  objections  offered  by  teachers. 

Text  book  method  or  special  plans,  which?  Plans  necessary  for 
results;  subject-matter  and  method  not  to  be  condemned 
simply  because  found  in  text  books;  the  text  book  a  back- 
ground of  geography  teaching. 

It  lias  been  pointed  out  in  another  chapter  that 
the  introduction  of  problems  in  the  teaching'  of 
geography  would  do  much  to  bring  about  a  wiser 
use  of  the  text  book.  Perhaps  the  greatest  im- 
provement in  geographical  teaching  would  follow 
of  necessity  the  reforms  of  vicious  text-book 
habits.  "What  constitutes  a  wise  and  reasonable 
use  of  the  text .' 

First  let  the  question  be  answered  negatively: 
A  very  bad  though  very  common  practice,  it  is 
feared,  is  the  assignment  of  a  definite  portion  of 
the  text-book  material,  without  any  definite  idea 
in  mind  as  to  what  there  is  in  that  portion  of  the 
rext  that  is  valuable,  reliable  and  pertinent  for 

172 


THE    USE    OE    TEXT    BOOKS  1?3 

the  particular  class  in  hand.  This  statement  no 
doubt  seems  to  be  an  innocent  platitude;  but  it  is 
so  important  that  it  would  bear  underscoring  sev- 
eral times.    Let  us  analyze  the  case. 

To  begin  with,  teachers  must  appreciate  the 
fact  that  text  books  are  compendiums  of  very  brief 
statements  and  condensed  treatments.  This  is  no 
criticism  of  the  texts,  however.  The  great  won- 
der is  that  so  vast  a  subject  as  the  earth  and  its 
life  can  be  so  interestingly  treated  in  such  meagre 
volumes.  Poor  teachers  usually  find  fault  with 
the  text  books.  Do  not  forget  that  every  text  pre- 
supposes a  teacher.  Probably  no  author  of  geog- 
raphies was  ever  satisfied  with  his  books.  The 
very  nature  of  the  case  has  compelled  a  "hop, 
skip  and  jump"  treatment.  The  Earth  and  Its 
Inhabitants,  by  Elisee  Rectus,  requires  eighteen 
encyclopedic  volumes,  and  even  this  excellent 
work  gives  no  extended  account  of  very  many  of 
the  topics  treated.  The  author  of  the  school  text 
confronts  the  difficult  task  of  making  his  subject 
interesting  without  being  permitted  to  develop 
his  topics  to  any  reasonable  degree. 

The  first  failure  in  the  use  of  the  text  is  de- 
tected in  unpurposeful  assignments.  Pupils  are 
directed  to  study  "so  much,"  but  no  hint  is  given 
as  to  why  they  should  study  the  lesson.  Their  at- 
tention is  not  centered  on  any  -particular  facts  that 
should  be  considered,  and  the  reading  of  the  les- 
son sometimes  is  quite  akin  to  reading  the  dic- 
tionary— "the  subject  changes  too  often."  No 
adequate  interest  is  aroused. 


174  THE   TEACHING  OF   GEOGRAPHY 

The  second  failure  grows  out  of  the  one  just 
stated.  Without  purpose  there  is  no  discrimina- 
tion of  the  laconic  statements.  Each  statement  is 
equally  important  to  the  pupil.  There  is  no  cen- 
tral theme,  hence  no  focalization  of  consciousness 
on  any  text  statement.  What  concentration  can 
follow  such  procedure? 

Again,  such  irrational  study  results  in  commit- 
ting meaningless  statements.  They  have  no  mean- 
ing because  they  are  unrelated  in  the  pupil's 
mind.  And  it  has  already  been  pointed  out  and 
emphasized  that  the  element  of  relationship,  the 
causal  element,  constitutes  the  basis  for  organiz- 
ing, or  tying  together  geographical  materials. 
Therefore  such  an  unpedagogical  method  cannot 
lead  to  the  organization  of  subject  matter. 

All  of  this  being  true,  what  of  the  interest  in 
the  study?  Will  the  lessons  not  "simmer  down" 
very  soon  into  a  monotonous,  lifeless  grind!  As 
already  shown,  such  method,  or  lack  of  method, 
tends  to  passivity  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  They 
are  recipients  merely  of  text  statements.  There 
are  no  demands  for  real  thinking  or  for  initiative 
in  study.  Hence  it  may  be  stated,  positively,  that 
a  wise  use  of  the  text  must  secure  quite  the  oppo- 
site results  of  those  mentioned,  viz.: 

(a)  The  assignment  must  be  characterized  In- 
definite purpose. 

(b)  Defmiteness  of  purpose  leads  pupils  to  dis- 
criminate, to  evaluate  statements  and  to 
choose  the  pertinent. 


THE    USE    OF    TEXT    BOOKS  J.75 

(c)  A  definite  aim  or  purpose  serves  as  a  nu- 
cleus or  center  about  which  related  ideas 
are  to  be  grouped.  This  relating  of  ideas 
is  fundamental  to  organization. 

(d)  Definite  aims  or  purposes  secure  variety 
in  daily  lessons. 

(e)  The  adaptation  of  the  book  to  the  purpose 
of  the  pupil  awakens  genuine  thought-ac- 
tivity and  stimulates  some  degree  of  initi- 
ative. 

So  far  as  the  mass  of  teachers  is  concerned, 
there  is  no  inclination  on  the  part  of  the  author  to 
make  it  appear  that  a  vast  amount  of  planning 
and  skirmishing  is  necessary  to  secure  at  least 
fairly  good  results.  In  the  following  illustration 
the  practical  rather  than  the  ideal  will  be  sug- 
gested. Let  us  suppose  that  the  North  Central 
States  are  to  be  studied,  and  that  the  text  treats 
the  states  separately,  by  political  rather  than  by 
regional  units.  Instead  of  saying,  "You  may 
study  Illinois,  Iowa  and  Missouri  for  tomorrow," 
the  teacher  assigns  as  follows: 

1.  Pupils,  the  Corn  Belt  extends  from  Ohio 
through  Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa  and  Missouri  into 
Kansas  and  Nebraska.  For  your  lesson,  select  all 
of  the  statements  from  your  book  that  seem  to 
tell  why  corn  thrives  well  in  these  states.  "Write 
a  paragraph  in  your  own  language  that  will  tell 
these  facts. 

2.  Select  all  of  the  statements  that  tell  of  the 
production  of  corn  in  these  states.     Tn  your  own 


176        THE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

language  write  a  paragraph  that  will  tell  these 
facts. 

3.  Make  a  sketch  map  of  these  states  and 
write  across  it,  "The  Corn  Belt  States." 

This  is  no  ideal  assignment.  It  is  one,  however, 
that  the  rural  teacher,  who  has  a  long  program, 
will  find  practicable.  However  much  this  assign- 
ment may  be  open  to  criticism,  it  is  purposeful, 
and  it  necessitates  the  discrimination  of  text-book 
statements.  It  must  be  an  improvement  on  the 
assignment  that  calls  only  for  an  aimless  reading 
of  the  same  text-matter.  In  making  the  suggestion 
the  writer  has  in  mind  a  sixth  grade  class,  using 
the  advanced  geography  of  a  two-book  series. 

Please  understand  the  position  here  taken.  The 
assignment  has  to  do  with  the  pupil's  use  of  the 
text  book.  It  is  not  thought  that  the  assignment 
will  in  any  sense  do  justice  to  the  topic  ''Corn  and 
the  Corn  Belt."  The  second  lesson  might  be  of 
this  character: 

1.  Ascertain  from  your  text  the  boundaries  of 
the  Corn  Belt.  On  your  sketch  of  yesterday  draw 
a  dotted  line  around  the  region  and  color  it  light 
yellow  with  water  color. 

2.  Study  your  text  to  learn  if  there  are  corn 
markets  in  these  states.  ]f  so,  indicate  the  loca- 
tion of  these  markets  or  cities  on  your  map. 

.').  Review  your  text  to  learn  of  the  uses  made 
of  corn.  Tn  your  own  language  write  a  paragraph 
which  tells  these  text-book  facts. 

4.  Review  your  text  to  learn  if  corn  is  shipped 


THE    USE    OF    TEXT    BOOKS  I?? 

out  of  the  Corn  Belt.  Write  a  paragraph  that 
tells  the  facts  gathered. 

5.  Make  a  sketch  ma})  to  show  the  commercial 
route  of  corn  from  some  city  mentioned  as  a  mar- 
ket in  the  Corn  Belt,  to  some  distant  city  market. 

These  prohlems  or  exercises  will  about  exhaust 
the  contribution  of  the  text  book  on  this  subject, 
though  "distribution  maps,"  if  found  in  the  text, 
and  excellent  pictures,  may  form  the  basis  of  fur- 
ther exercises  in  comparisons  and  inferences. 

It  should  be  understood  that  the  above  sug- 
gestive method  of  using  the  text  leads  in  no  sense 
to  a  systematic  treatment  of  the  topic ;  the 
"rounding  out"  falls  to  the  teacher,  and  through 
development  and  supplementary  exercises  much 
can  be  done  of  real  interest  and  value.  Here  are 
a  few  suggestive  problems : 

(a)  What  temperature,  moisture  and  soil  con- 
ditions are  most  favorable  to  the  produc- 
tion of  corn  ? 

(b)  Of  what  importance  is  corn  as  a  commer- 
cial commodity.'     Where  shipped?     Why? 

(c)  What  are  the  uses  of  corn?  What  products 
are  made  from  corn?*     AVhere? 

(d)  How  docs  the  corn  industry  help  the 
farmer?  The  transporter?  The  manufac- 
turer?    The  consumer? 

(e)  I  low  docs  the  production  of  corn  affect  the 
stock  industry?  The  coal  industry?  The 
starch  and  sugar  industries?     The  manu- 

*  I!.  !>•  ilu>  value  of  the  museum   is  apparent. 


178        THE   TEACHING   OF   GEOGRAPHY 

facture    of    implements  ?     The    growth    of 
cities  ? 

(f)  How  does  corn  compare  with  other  cereals 
as  a  food?  What  countries  make  large  use 
of  corn  products?    Why! 

(g)  Compare  the  United  States  with  other 
countries  in  corn  production. 

The  development  of  topics  of  this  kind  is  quite 
dependent  upon  the  teacher.  But  the  significance 
and  general  richness  of  the  study  is  contingent 
upon  the  development  of  topics  beyond  the  point 
of  exposition  in  the  ordinary  text.  The  use  of 
geographical  readers  in  this  connection  is  of  much 
value.  In  making  even  a  brief  study  of  corn,  chil- 
dren will  be  delighted  to  read  the  section  on  corn 
in  Carpenter's  Industrial  Reader,  Foods,  or  to 
read  some  chapter  from  The  Book  of  Corn. 

Learning  by  rote  has  little  place  in  geography, 
and  probably  the  chief  error  is  that  of  committing 
condensed  statements  which,  without  elaboration 
and  assimilation,  cannot  possibly  be  of  much 
value  either  as  knowledge  or  as  educative  mate- 
rial. Prof.  C.  Tl.  Leete,  who  has  prepared  a  small 
volume  of  Exercises  in  Geography,  says:  Through 
proper  exercises  ''pupils  are  led  to  collate  facts 
for  themselves  and  to  write  their  own  descrip- 
tions. They  learn  as  they  work:  their  interest 
arises  from  the  processes  of  acquisition  and  ex- 
pression; the  result  is  the  power  of  perceiving  es- 
sential facts  and  of  recording  what  is  seen."     To 


THE    USE    OE    TEXT    BOOKS  179 

this  the  writer  would  add  that  the  interest  will 
grow  out  of  the  self-activity  of  the  pupils. 

In  the  above  discussion  it  has  been  assumed 
that  the  text  is  about  all  the  teacher  has  to  use. 
This  attitude  is  assumed  and  suggestions  made 
accordingly,  to  the  end  that  no  teacher  can  say, 
as  he  might  if  an  elaborate  plan  were  suggested, 
"I  haven't  the  books  and  maps  and  time  to  teach 
that  way."  But  every  teacher  can  refrain  from 
the  senseless  rote  work  and  can  substitute  simple 
problems  for  the  meaningless  empirical  teaching. 
If,  however,  the  teacher  in  graded  schools  has 
more  facilities  and  reasonable  time,  more  elab- 
orate plans  can  be  executed  with  profit.  In  this 
event  more  exercises  based  on  atlases  and  maps 
should  be  introduced,  and  the  text  used  largely 
to  verify  inductions  and  inferences.  An  illustra- 
tion of  the  use  of  the  text  in  this  case  is  given  in 
another  chapter  under  the  caption,  ''An  Illus- 
trative Exercise  Based  upon  Longman's  Xew 
School  Atlas." 

In  a  recent  article*  Prof.  Salisbury  contends 
that  better  results  would  accrue  from  a  closer  fol- 
lowing of  text  books,  as  few  teachers  are  compe- 
tent to  make  better  plans  than  are  found  in  the 
books,  and  further  that  the  teacher's  energy  is 
often  spent  in  making  plans  rather  than  in  realiz- 
ing them.  This  may  be  true;  but  we  must  not  fail 
to  recognize  that  a  text  book  is  a  sort  of  balance 
struck  between  the  requirements  of  widely  differ- 
ing regions  and  interests;  that  classes  of  pupils 

»  "Educational    Ki-Muiithly,"   June,   1009. 


180        THE   TEACHING  OE  GEOGRAPHY 

vary  greatly,  even  within  the  limits  of  a  medium- 
sized  city,  and  that  teaching  facilities  and  general 
conditions  often  make  this  "struck  balance"  plan 
inadequate  and  uninteresting. 

The  idea  often  held  that  pupils  must  never  look 
into  their  books  while  in  class  is  old-fashioned  and 
traditional.  Quite  often  the  recitation  period  may 
very  profitably  be  spent  with  books  open  and 
pupils  intent  on  answering  questions  from  maps, 
interpreting  pictures,  verifying  inferences,  or 
getting  correct  meaning  from  difficult  sentences. 
Every  teacher  who  secures  good  results  must  find 
such  "study-recitations"  necessary.  Too  often 
pupils  are  put  to  tasks  without  preparation; 
waste  of  time,  mental  confusion  and  discourage- 
ment are  quite  sure  to  follow. 

The  author  is  in  no  sense  condemning  the  use  of 
text  books.  He  is,  however,  making  a  strong  plea 
for  a  wiser  use  of  them.  But  a  wiser  use  cannot 
be  accomplished  without  a  consideration  of  (a) 
the  needs  of  pupils  together  with  their  already 
acquired  knowledge;  (b)  the  subject-matter  as 
presented  in  the  text  book,  and  whether  it  is  per- 
tinent, capable  of  satisfying  the  pupils'  needs  and 
within  their  grasp;  and  (c)  the  best  method  of 
bringing  the  pupil  and  the  subject-matter  into 
the  most  harmonious  relation'5.  And  what  is  this 
hot  plan  ?  Anything  short  of  this  at  once  reduces 
geography  teaching  to  the  old  formal  and  em- 
pirical method.  The  successful  teacher  must  plan  ; 
but  it  docs  not  follow  that  because  the  text  book 
ha--  selected  and  arranged  certain  subject-matter 


TEE    USE    OF    TEXT    BOOKS  181 

that  such  material  must  of  course  be  condemned, 
and  new  matter  selected  and  arranged  to  show  the 
''linger  marks"  of  the  teacher.  And  yet  good 
schools  can  be  pointed  out  in  which  a  sentiment 
has  been  created  that  anything  found  in  text 
books  of  geography,  at  least  the  adopted  texts,  is 
of  little  consequence,  either  from  the  standpoint 
of  subject-matter  or  method. 

Text  books  are  wisely  handled  when — 

(a)  assignments  from  them  take  the  form  of 
problems, 

(1))  the  solution  of  problems  furnishes  a  mo- 
tive to  consider  and  discriminate  between 
text-book  statements, 

(c)  subject-matter   satisfies   the  pupils'   needs, 

(d)  only  generalizations  satisfy  the  demands  of 
the  problem, 

(o)  independent  work  is  necessitated  by  the 
problem,  and 

(f)    much  use  is  made  of  maps  and  graphs. 

The  teacher  should  recognize  the  text  book  as 
the  background  of  the  work.  Where  other  courses 
of  study  are  not  provided,  it  serves  as  an  elabo- 
rated course  of  study.  But  it  is  not  to  be  swal- 
lowed whole.  For  many  reasons  the  order  of  les- 
sons may  need  to  be  changed.  Some  lessons  may 
profitably  be  studied  pretty  thoroughly:  some 
only  carefully  read;  and  some  may  need  to  be 
omitted.  That  text  books  are  abused  does  not 
condemn  them;  it  rather  reflects  upon  the  intelli- 
gence of  the  teacher. 


182  THE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

SUGGESTIONS  AND  QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  the  teacher's  first  problem  in  the  use  of  a  text  book? 
'2.  How  can  assignments  be  made  to  prevent  formal  rote  work  in 
the  preparation  of  lessons? 

3.  What  are  the  requisites  of  good  assignments  ? 

4.  How  can  expression  enter  into  the  preparation  of  lessons? 

5.  What  value  should  be  attached  to  maps  and  graphs? 

6.  Should  the  teacher  make  formal  plans?     When?     Can  a  lesson 

be  well  taught  without  a  plan? 

7.  How  ought  the  teacher  of  geography  to  regard  his  text  book:' 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Hinsdale.  B.  A.— The  Art  of  Study. 

Salisbury,  Rollin  D. — "The  Teaching  of  Geography — A  Criticism 
and  a  Suggestion. ' '     Educational  Bi-Monthly,  June,  1909. 

Chamberlain,  J.  F. — ''Geography  and  Life,"  Elementary  Teacher, 
October,  1S97. 

Shaler,  N.  S. — "Practical  Methods  of  Teaching  Geography," 
Proc.  N.  E.  A..  1903,  p.  S4S. 

Redwav.  J.  W.— "  Text  Books  of  Geography,"  Ed.  Rev.  Vol.  V, 
p.' 153. 

Genthe,  Martha  Krug — "Geographical  Text  Books  and  Geograph- 
ical Teaching,"  Journal  of  Geography,  Vol.  II,  p.  360. 

Calkin.s,  R.  D. — "Text  and  Teacher,"  Journal  of  Geography,  Vol. 
IV,  p.  104. 


PART   III. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

The  Vaeue  of  Magazines  and  Government  Pub- 
lications in  Teaching  Geography. 

topics  to  be  coxsidehed. 

The  value  of  magazine  articles  in  teaching  geography;  text  books 
necessarily  brief;  magazines  are  unconventional;  they  appeal 
strongly. 

Subject-matter  of  standard  periodicals  and  government  reports 
reliable. 

Magazines  well  illustrated;  [dace  emphasis  on  social  side  of  sub- 
ject; illustration  of  the  richness  of  current  publications  in 
geographical    information. 

Sources  from  which  helpful  material  can  be  secured. 

Educative  material  of  high  grade  often  appears 
in  magazines,  and  since  magazines  are  now  so 
widely  circulated  there  seems  to  be  no  serious  ob- 
stacle in  the  way  of  bringing  them  into  the  school. 
As  to  government  publications,  it  is  their  func- 
tion to  educate,  and  as  goodly  numbers  of  the 
government  issues  are  free,  there  certainly  is  no 
valid  reason  why  they  should  not  be  drawn  upon, 
together  with  the  popular  and  technical  maga- 
zines, to  serve  often  as  helps  and  sometimes  as 
bases  of  school-room  lessons. 

183 


184  THE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

The  materials  drawn  from  these  sources  are  of 
distinct  value  in  teaching  geography  because: 

1.  They  serve  as  valuable  supplements  to  brief 

school  texts. 

2.  The  subject-matter  is  authentic  and  up-to- 
date  ;  it  gives  a  living  touch  to  the  instruc- 
tion. 

3.  The  articles  are  usually  well  illustrated. 

4.  They  afford  the  best  media  for  emphasiz- 
ing the  social  phase  of  the  subject. 

1.  Text  books  are  laconic  in  their  styles.  This 
is  necessarily  the  case,  since  they  deal  mainly  with 
the  principles  of  the  subject.  They  are  mere  out- 
lines at  the  best.  Hence  the  imperative  need  of 
supplementary  material.  This  we  have  in  gen- 
erous quantity,  in  the  form  of  geographical  read- 
ers, but  many  schools  are  not  provided  with  such 
reference  books.  The  magazine  article  is  usually 
of  much  greater  length  than  articles  in  geograph- 
ical readers,  a  fact  that  offers  an  advantage  in 
type  study  exercises  where  the  elaboration  should 
be  rather  comprehensive.  Still  another  advantage 
lies  in  the  fact  that  the  magazine  article  is  not 
the  conventional  source  from  which  to  supplement 
the  lesson.  Like  the  occasional  school  visitor,  it 
causes  the  pupils  "to  sit  up  and  take  notice."  The 
few  supplementary  and  reference  books  that  the 
average  school  has  (if  it  has  any)  are  often  worn, 
torn,  dilapidated  and  emit  the  ancient  odor  of 
dusty  school  rooms.  TTow  welcome  the  fresh, 
clean,  beautifully  illustrated  magazine!  Unlike 
the  school  book,  it  was  not  invented  especially  for 


THE    VALUE   OF  MAGAZINES  185 

the  school  room,  but  is  cosmopolitan  and  related 
"to  other  worlds  than  ours." 

2.  The  subject-matter  of  standard  magazines 
is  far  more  reliable  on  most  topics  than  is  the  text. 
Boundaries,  populations  and  trade  relations  are 
always  changing.  Maps  and  texts,  as  a  result,  are 
ever  in  danger  of  becoming  obsolete.  The  use  of 
current  literature  assists  in  making  needed  cor- 
rections. Their  use  also  saves  the  energy  and 
time  which  might  otherwise  be  devoted  to  some 
topic  now  untrue  by  bringing  the  information  of 
wholly  new  conditions.  The  intelligent  and  re- 
fined depend  upon  current  literature  to  keep  in- 
formed. The  magazine  performs  the  definite 
function  of  supplying  the  recent  and  reliable 
world-information,  and  for  this  reason  it  seems 
wise  to  welcome  it  into  the  school  room. 

.').  Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the 
pictorial  side  of  the  magazine.  This  feature  is  of 
no  little  moment,  and  nearly  all  of  the  argument 
advanced  for  the  use  of  pictures  in  school  applies 
with  equal  validity  to  the  illustrations  of  our  best 
magazines.  An  instance  in  which  the  illustrative 
value  of  a  magazine  is  unusually  great  is  found 
in  the  ''National  Geographic  Magazine."*  This 
publication  is  so  well  illustrated  that  it  seems  to 
deserve  a  place  on  the  school  reading  tattle  if  for 
no  other  reason  than  that  of  its  pictures.  Many 
other  cases  of  equal  merit  might  be  mentioned. 

4.     The  magazine  article  emphasizes  the  social 

*  Xat'iHial  Geographic  Society,  Hubbard  Memorial  Hall,  Washing- 
ton, l'.  c 


IXQ  TEE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

side  of  geography.  Information  gleaned  from  its 
source  makes  more  impression.  The  school  suffers 
from  isolation.  The  magazine  brings  into  the 
school  a  little  of  the  big,  teeming  world.  Its  para- 
graphs have  no  set-to-school-order  arrangement, 
and  the  content  no  suggestions  that  it  was  pro- 
duced for  the  school  alone.  The  magazine  is  a 
cosmopolitan  book,  not  a  school  book,  and  in  this 
lies  its  particular  power.  Through  such  media  the 
school  materials  can  best  be  socialized.  The  more 
our  schools  can  draw  upon  the  actual  world  for 
its  educative  materials,  the  more  will  be  the  prog- 
ress toward  uniting  school  and  life  interests. 

Can  there  be  any  doubt  as  to  the  wisdom  of 
using  magazine  articles  in  the  teaching  of  geog- 
raphy? The  practical  question  of  securing  the 
magazines  still  confronts  the  teacher.  Perhaps 
the  children  can  be  interested  sufficiently  to  con- 
tribute a  few  cents  each  in  order  to  secure  the 
"National  Geographic  Magazine,"  the  "World's 
Work,"  or  the  "World  Today,"  for  their  school 
room.  But  this  question  of  expediency  Is  one  not 
to  be  argued  here. 

Should  the  teacher  happen  himself  to  be  a  sub 
scriber  to  the  "Journal  of  Geography," *  he  will 
find  many  articles  quite  readable  by  the  upper 
grade  pupils.  Then,  too,  the  monthly  summary 
of  "Current  Articles  on  Commerce  and  Industry" 
which  this  excellent  magazine  gives  will  be  of 
help  to  the  teacher  in  locating  useful  geographic 

-  ".Tmirnnl  of  Geography,"  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University, 
New   York  City. 


THE    VALUE   OF  MAGAZINES  18? 

material.     Other  magazines  compile  similar  sum- 
maries. 

In  order  to  impress  young  teachers  with  the 
idea  that  there  is  really  much  material  applicable 
to  the  school  room  to  be  gleaned  from  magazine 
sources,  a  part  of  a  compilation  for  one  year, 
made  by  Prof.  IT.  S.  DeVelde,*  is  here  given. 

"The  Pacific:  Most  Explored  and  Least  Known.'1' 

National   Geog.   Magazine;  Aug.,    '08 — L.   G. 

Blackmail. 
"Buenos    Aires    (City   of   Good   Airs)."     Scrib- 

ner's;  May,  '08— A.  Ruehl. 
"A    Country    of   Natural    Bridges    (S.    Utah)." 

Technical  World;  Sept.,  '08— II.  Culver. 
"Quebec — Britain's  French  Empire  in  America." 

Review  of  Reviews;  Dec,  '08 — L.  A".  Norman. 
"The  China  That  Is."     Review  of  Reviews;  Feb., 

'09— I).  Lambuth. 
"Sicily — Battlefield    of    Nations    and    Nature." 

National   Geog.   Magazine;  Jan.,    '09 — G.   C. 

Bosson. 
"In  Quaint,   Curious  Croatia."     National   Geog. 

Magazine;  Dec,  '08— F.  J.  Koch. 
"Buried  Cities  of  Asia  Minor."     National  Geog. 

Magazine;  Feb.,  '09— E.  L.  Harris. 
"Kaleidoscopic  La  Paz   (City  of  the  Clouds)." 

National  Geog.   Magazine;   Feb.,    '09—11.  C. 

Adams. 
"The    Land    of    the    Boer    and    Its    Railroads." 

World  Today;  Dec,  '08— C.  Pierson. 

*  "Educational  Bi-Monthlv."  June,  1900,  Chicago  Normal  School 
Fret:.;. 


188        TEE   TEACHING   OF   GEOGRAPHY 

"Alaska  and  Its  Wealth."    World  Today;  June, 

'OS— Dr.  W.  W.  Atwood. 
"Real  Venezuela."    World  Today;  Jan.,  '09. 
"Changing  Conditions  in  the  Caribbean."   World 

Today;  Feb.,  '09— R.  A.  Wilson. 
"My  Discoveries  in  Thibet."    Harper's  Monthly; 

Aug.,  '08— Sven  Hedin. 
"The  French  Peasant  in  His  Fields."     Outing; 

Aug.,  '08 — V.  Thompson. 
"A  Trip  Through  Africa."    World's  Work;  Oct., 

'08— S.  P.  Verner. 
'  •  Across  Africa  by  Boat. ' '    World's  Work ;  April, 

'08— E.  A.  Forbes. 
'•Lineaments  of  the  Desert."     Popular  Science; 

Jan.,  '09— C.  R.  Keys. 
' •  Where  East  Meets  West  ( Dalmatia)."    National 

Greog.  Magazine;  May,  '08. 
••  Persia — The  Awakening  East."    National  Geog. 

Magazine;  May,  '08. 

So  far  the  discussion  has  referred  to  magazines 
only.  Since  education  and  enlightenment  is  the 
function  of  government  publications,  and  since 
they  are  largely  for  free  distribution,  little  argu- 
ment is  necessary  to  commend  them  to  school  use. 
These  publications  are  highly  authentic,  a  quality 
of  much  importance.  Careful  selection  and  adap- 
tation are  of  course  necessary.  Some  of  the  cir- 
culars, bulletins  and  monographs  are  too  techni- 
cal for  public  school  use;  others  are  readable  even 
by  the  pupils  of  higher  grades.     As  in  the  case  of 


THE    VALUE   OF   MAGAZINES  189 

magazines,  they  are  usually  illustrated  and  deal 
with  great  diversity  of  subjects. 

For  use  in  geography,  the  publications  of  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey;  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce  and  Labor;  of  the  Treasury 
Department,  and  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
are  most  useful.  In  addition  to  the  publications 
of  the  general  government,  there  are  many  valu- 
able state  publications,  notably  those  of  the  state 
geological  surveys,  the  experiment  stations,  and 
agricultural  colleges. 

The  United  States  Geological  Survey  has  a  long 
list  of  publications.  Teachers  should  address  the 
Director  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Washington,  D. 
C,  for  the  "List  of  Publications  of  the  U.  S. 
Geological  Survey."  Reports  and  bulletins,  some 
free  and  others  at  nominal  cost,  are  available. 

The  various  state  geological  surveys  issue  an- 
nual reports,  many  of  which  are  very  useful  to 
teachers.  The  following  recent  publications  of 
the  Illinois  State  Geological  Survey  will  serve  as 
an  illustration  : 

Bulletin  Xo.  3 — "Composition  and  Uses  of 
Coal,"  by  S.  AY.  Parr. 

Bulletin  Xo.  4 — "Report  of  the  Co-Operative 
Topographic  Survey,"'  by  JL  M.  Wilson. 

Educational  Bulletins  Xos.  1,  2,  3  and  4 

Xo.  1  treats  of  the  region  along  Lake  Michigan. 

Xo.  2  treats  of  the  valley  of  the  Des  Plaines 
river. 

X~o.  3  treats  of  the  Illinois  Valley  from  Henne- 
pin to  Pekin. 


190        TEE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

Xo.  4  treats  of  the  region  about  East  St.  Louis. 

A  Monthly  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Labor 
is  published  by  the  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Treasury 
Department,  and  often  contains  monographs  of 
value  in  commercial  geography,  especially :  e.  g. 

Grain  Trade  in  the  United  States. 
Cotton  Trade  in  the  United  States. 
Coal  Trade  in  the  United  States. 
Lumber  Trade  in  the  United  State.-. 
Production  and  Consumption  of  Sugar. 
Commercial  Porto  Pico. 
Commercial  Philippines. 
Great  Canals  of  the  World. 
Steamship   Lines  Between   U.   S.   and   Foreign 
Countries,  etc. 

These  may  be  obtained  by  addressing  The  De- 
partment of  Commerce  and  Labor.  Wash- 
ington, I).  C. 

The  Consular  Reports  may  be  mentioned  in 
this  connection.  They  are  free  daily  or  monthly, 
and  a  trial  will  convince  teachers  of  their  practical 
use  in  the  geography  lesson.  Address  Bureau  of 
Foreign  Commerce,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Census  Reports.  Volumes  on  Manufactures. 
Agriculture  and  the  Statistical  Atlas  are  of  spe- 
cial value.  Address,  Bureau  of  Census.  Washing- 
ton, I).  C. 

The  publications  of  the  Department  of  Agricul 
tare  are  numerous,  useful   and  pertinent  at  this 
time,    when    agriculture    is    of    so    much    interest. 


THE    VALVE    OF    PICTURES  191 

Duplicate  copies  of  selected  papers  might  well  be 
studied  in  class  and  then  given  to  the  pupils  for 
home  use. 

The  "Year  Book"  of  this  department  is  of 
special  value.  Topics  of  the  following  nature  are 
treated : 

"Rice  Culture  in  the  United  States." 

"Life    Zones    and    Crop   Zones   of   the    United 

States." 
"The  Fruit  Industry." 
"Agricultural  Resources  of  Hawaii." 
"Milk  Supply  of  Boston  and  Other  Cities." 
"Forest  Conditions  of  AYisconsin,"  etc.,  etc. 
The   re] torts  of  Experiment  Stations,  and  the 
Annual   Reports   of   Farmers'   Institutes,   are   of 
interest  to  teachers,  who  should  apply  to  the  di- 
rectors of  these  institutions  for  information.    The 
State  Railway  and  Warehouse  Commissions  often 
distribute  useful  maps  of  their  respective  states. 


SUGGESTIONS  AND  QUESTIONS. 

1.  Why    should    geographical    text    books    especially    need    supple- 

menting ? 

2.  Why  should  current  magazine  articles  appeal  strongly  to  pupils? 
.">.   What   advantage  has   the  unconventional   source  of   information 

over  the  conventional  ? 

4.  What  features  of  text  hooks  are  most  likely  to  become  obsolete.' 

5.  What   phase  of  geography  is  emphasized  in  current   magazines? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

DeVelde.  II.  S—  "The  Value  of  Magazine  Articles  in  the  Teach- 
ing of  Geography."   Ed.   Hi  Monthly.  June.  1909. 

.Tom-.  Edward  D. — "Sources  of  Literature  for  Commercial  Geog 
raphy, "  Jour,  of  Geog.,  April.  1902. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

The  Value  of  Pictures  in  Teaching  Geography. 
topics  to  be  considered. 

Why    pictures    arc    valuable     in    teaching    geography;     excellent 

medium  to  convey  ideas;  pictures  quickly  and  easily  read. 
Pictures  give  unity  of  impression;  printed  statements  more  likely 

to  confuse. 
Pictures  are  accurate  and  attractive. 
Suggestions  as  to   use   of   pictures;    text   book   pictures   not  to  be 

neglected;  how  to  read  a  picture;  illustrations. 
Collections  of  pictures;   how   to  use  stereographs;    value  of  stere- 

optieon. 

Good  pictures  constitute  one  of  the  most  valu- 
able helps  in  teaching  geography.  Fortunately  in 
these  later  years  the  popularity  of  the  camera  has 
wrought  wonders  in  making  good  pictures  cheap. 
The  public's  taste  has  improved.  More  and  better 
pictures  are  demanded.  Many  of  our  magazines 
have  come  to  be  veritable  picture  books.  The  ad- 
vertise]- resorts  more  and  more  to  the  efficacy  of 
pictures  to  herald  his  wares.  And  is  it  not  psy- 
chologically sound  to  do  so?  Let  us  examine  the 
case. 

1.  A  picture  is  particularly  valuable,  first  of 
all,  because  it  is  a  highly  economical  medium 
through  which  ideas  can  be  conveyed.  It  econ- 
omizes both  time  and  effort.    Through  the  picture 

VJ2 


TEE    VALVE    OF    PICTURES  193 

the  complete  situation  is  projected.  There  is  no 
time  spent  in  building  up,  constructively,  the  idea 
from  words,  phrases  and  sentences.  The  picture 
is  a  literal  reproduction,  that  brings  into  focal 
consciousness  the  required  idea  as  quickly  and 
easily  as  the  original  would  if  exposed  to  view. 
Indeed,  the  picture  may  sometimes  even  surpass 
the  original,  from  the  fact  that  the  artist  may 
have  selected  wisely,  omitting  from  the  field  many 
details  which  would  obscure  the  central  theme. 
In  nature,  the  observer  is  often  compelled  to 
pause,  to  select,  and  to  cast  out,  before  he  can  see 
exactly  what  he  wants  to  see.  At  first  he  "  cannot 
see  the  town  for  the  houses."  That  pictures  are 
often  better  than  the  originals  is  attested  by  the 
fact  that  few  persons  are  satisfied  with  pictures 
that  are  exact  "likenesses."  So  far  as  the  efficacy 
of  pictures  is  concerned  in  teaching  geography,  a 
wise  selection  of  a  central  theme  or,  to  put  it 
negatively,  the  elimination  of  irrelevant  details,  is 
of  much  importance.  The  camera  picks  out  for 
the  observer,  and  saves  him  the  trouble. 

In  getting  ideas  from  the  printed  page  the 
superiority  of  the  picture  is  beyond  question. 
Words  not  only  bring  the  idea  by  degrees  and 
slowly,  but  in  comparison  with  pictures  they 
necessitate  more  mental  effort.  Word  symbols 
must  be  translated  into  concrete  images,  and  the 
gap  between  word  symbols  and  the  desired  image 
is  rather  great.  The  building  of  a  picture  through 
reading  is  a  synthetic  process,  which  in  itself  sug- 
gests  labor  and   time.     In   reading  pictures   the 


194  THE   TEACHING   OE  GEOGRAPHY 

process  is  reversed ;  the  picture,  if  a  good  one, 
presents  a  unity  at  first  sight,  and  in  a  farther 
study  of  the  picture  we  analyze,  and  eliminate 
details,  if  necessary. 

2.  The  second  value  of  the  picture  has,  then, 
been  pointed  out,  viz.,  unity  of  impression.  If 
descriptive  composition  be  somewhat  complex  in 
order  to  be  exact,  it  often  happens  that  the  mental 
pictures  do  not  differentiate  themselves  clearly. 
This  can  be  tested  as  follows :  Ask  a  class  of 
seventh  or  eighth  grade  pupils  to  read  a  page  of 
description  and  select  the  important  pictures.  It 
is  likely  that  there  will  be  considerable  variation 
as  to  the  number  of  pictures  formed  by  different 
pupils,  and  this  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  printed  symbols,  in  yielding  to  this  transla- 
tion, failed  to  call,  in  all  cases,  the  same  ideas  into 
focal  consciousness. 

3.  Pictures  are  accurate.  But  little  need  be 
said  on  this  point,  except  again  by  way  of  com- 
parison with  the  printed  page.  A  strange  word 
may  be  a  stumbling  block  in  constructive  concep- 
tion, whereas  in  the  picture  we  see  the  unity  in 
familiar  words  of  our  own  vocabulary.  However, 
it  is  no  doubt  true  that  in  reading  a  picture,  that 
is,  in  reducing  it  to  language,  visual  perceptions 
are  made  clearer  and  more  significant  through  a 
correlation  with  language. 

4.  Pictures  are  attractive,  even  .beautiful,  in 
our  best  text  books.  Recall  the  illustrations  in 
Harold  YY\  Fairbanks'  Home  Geography.  The 
well -selected    nnd   clearly   printed   pictures   make 


IRE    VALUE    OF    PIC  TERES  195 

this  little  volume  truly  artistic.  Indeed,  it  is 
through  the  attractiveness  of  pictures  very  largely 
that  beginners  are  taught  the  printed  symbols. 
It  would  seem  that  there  is  little  need  of  arguing 
the  use  of  pictures  in  teaching. 

5.  The  first  suggestion  offered  is  that  you 
make  good  use  of  the  pictures  in  the  text  book. 
Do  not  trust  the  pupils  to  read  the  pictures  for 
themselves.  True,  they  will  get  much  from  them 
without  the  teacher's  help,  and  they  will  enjoy 
them  ;  but  they  cannot  be  expected  to  get  the  best 
lessons  without  guidance.  At  any  rate,  it  is  the 
teacher's  business  to  know,  and  the  knowledge  is 
secured  by  testing  the  pupils  on  picture  reading 
as  you  would  test  them  on  context  reading. 

The  writer  has  before  him  a  picture  of  a  whale- 
back  steamer  passing  through  the  "Soo"  locks. 
As  a  class  exercise  the  pupils  may  be  directed  to 
open  their  books  at  this  picture.  They  are  given 
a  little  time  for  silent  reading.  Each  pupil  is  then 
required  to  read  something  from  the  picture.  If 
the  points  are  not  all  brought  out,  questions  from 
the  teacher  will  lead  the  class  to  see  the  additional 
significance  in  the  illustration. 

1.  Why  is  the  ship  called  a  "whaleback"  ? 
What  sort  of  cargo  is  it  built  to  carry? 
Show  why.     What  arc  its  advantage.-.' 

2.  Examine  the  lock.  Why  is  it  necessary? 
Which  of  the  lakes  has  a  higher  water  level .' 
Can  you  determine  from  the  picture  some- 
thing of  the  manner  of  operating  the  lock? 


1(JG 


THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 


3.  "With  what  kind  of  cargo  is  the  whaleback 
loaded?  "Where  is  it  probable  that  it  loaded? 
What  sort  of  country,  then,  is  accessible  to 
Duluth  ?  What  of  the  soils  ?  The  topog- 
raphy? The  rainfall?  If  this  region  ex- 
ports wheat,  what  do  yon  think  it  imports? 
Why? 

4.  Where  is  the  ''whaleback"  going!     Why? 


.ake    Transportation.      A    Whaleback    Freighter    Passing    Through    the 
"Soo"    Locks    Between    Lake    Superior   and    Lake    Huron. 


Do  you  think  Buffalo  lias  flour  mills  .'  Why 
should  Buffalo  manufacture  flour?  Where 
will  the  flour  go  from  Buffalo?  How?  Why 
will  if  go  to  New  York? 

A  further  illustration,  suggesting  a  practical 
method  of  using  pictures,  and  incidentally  empha- 
sizing the  value  of  government  publications,  else- 


THE    VALUE    OF    PICTUBES  197 

whore  discussed  as  sources  of  information,  is 
taken  from  a  valuable  paper  by  Marian  Weller.* 
''The  picture  lesson  should  be  one  to  secure  the 
activity  of  the  child,  and  not  one  merely  to  hold 
his  attention.  This  point  may  be  illustrated  by 
a  couple  of  lessons  with  a  class  which  was  study- 
ing1 the  Philippine  Islands. 

"Some  extra  copies  of  two  or  three  of  the  illus- 
trated volumes  of  the  Eeport  of  the  Philippine 
Commission  were  gotten  by  the  teacher,  and  the 
pictures  and  printed  matter  bearing  upon  certain 
selected  topics  were  cut  out  and  arranged  for  the 
use  of  individual  pupils  in  the  class.  Such  topics 
as  the  cultivation  of  rice,  the  hemp  industry,  the 
water  buffalo,  native  methods  of  transportation, 
the  construction  of  a  native  house,  were  found 
well  illustrated,  and  each  topic  was  assigned  to 
some  pupil  to  be  presented  before  the  class.  In 
connection  with  some  of  the  topics  museum  ma- 
terial was  brought  in  to  supplement  the  pictures, 
such  as  a  bundle  of  hemp  liber  prepared  by  the 
nativo.  and  a  protective  covering  made  from  dry 
palm  'caves,  illustrating  the  manner  in  which  the 
roofs  of  the  houses  are  thatched  to  shed  the  rain. 

"The  way  in  which  the  'rice'  topic  was  pre- 
sented will  serve  as  illustration.  The  topic  was 
assigned  a  day  or  two  before  it  was  to  be  reported 
on.  and  the  pupil  prepared  his  exercise  from  the 
printed   references  and  pictures  which  had  been 


•"Nature    Study    nnc]    Orography."      Pamphlet    <>:'   the    Northern    1 111- 
n<  lis  Ti  ;u  hers'   Association. 


198  THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

collected.  In  the  presentation  of  the  topic  it  was 
explained  with  the  pictures,  using  a  picture  with 
each  step,  how  the  ground  was  prepared  with  the 
help  of  the  native  plow  and  harrow  and  the  water 
buffalo;  how  the  fields  were  surrounded  with 
levees  and  flooded;  how  the  rice  was  planted  by 
hand  and  later  harvested  with  a  small  hand  sickle, 
and  then  threshed,  by  being  trampled  on,  either 
by  the  natives  themselves  or  by  the  water  buffalo. 
Then  with  pictures  it  was  explained  what  is  being 
done  on  a  government  farm  with  more  modern 
methods.  Each  picture  was  shown  to  the  class, 
and  in  it  a  definite  thing  was  called  attention  to, 
which  was  to  be  seen  by  the  class.  After  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  topic  some  stalks  of  rice  in  the 
head,  threshed  rice,  rice  with  hull  removed,  rice 
polished,  and  rice  flour  and  bran  were  shown." 

Collect  pictures  to  supplement  the  text  book. 
Many  hue  booklets  profusely  illustrated  arc  dis- 
tributed by  transportation  companies.  Often 
whole  page  photographic  reprints  are  given. 
Watch  the  announcements  of  these  companies  in 
daily  papers.  Send  for  free  booklets.  The  larger 
views  can  be  mounted  on  cardboard  for  conveni- 
ence in  class  use.  Label  each  picture  and  put  in 
its  proper  class.  An  active  teacher  can  soon  col- 
lect several  hundred  pictures  on  geography,  his- 
tory and  art  :  such  a  collection,  properly  used,  is 
of  great  value.*  Railroad  companies  often  give 
away  fine  views — sometimes  mounted  or  framed— 


*  Certain  publishers  furnish,  at  reasonable  cost,  pictures  singly  nr 
in  sets,  illustrating  travl,  commerce  and  industrial  arts.  Sec  Bib- 
liofiraphj . 


THE    VALUE    OF   F1CTUEEX  199 

which  are  not  only  useful  for  geographical  illus- 
tration but  ornamental  as  well. 

As  above  suggested,  the  value  of  pictures  de- 
pends much  on  their  classification  and  arrange- 
ment for  immediate  use.  If  no  better  system  is 
possible,  large  manila  envelopes  may  be  used  to 
good  advantage.  An  index  of  the  enclosed  pic- 
tures should  be  written  on  the  face  of  the  en- 
velope. 

STEREOGRAPHS. 

The  stereoscopic  views  (stereographs)  are  very 
convenient  for  use  in  geography.  Certain  com- 
panies are  making  specialties  of  educational 
views.  The  photographs  are  taken  by  experts, 
and  by  use  of  the  stereoscope  are  made  to  stand 
out  in  bold  relief.  These  views  are  excelled  only 
by  the  stereopticon  views,  which,  of  course,  are 
beyond  the  reach  of  most  schools. 

The  stereographs  are  selected  and  arranged  in 
sets,  each  treating  of  some  particular  subject. 
These  sets  can  be  used  to  excellent  advantage  in 
type  studies.  Almost  every  subject  is  treated. 
Some  important  industries  are  illustrated  in  all 
of  their  phases  by  as  many  as  twenty-five  to  fifty 
views.  Taken  in  order,  they  represent  every 
phase  of  great  industries. 

Some  companies  have  employed  educational  ex- 
perts to  write  descriptions  to  accompany  the 
viows.  Usually  the  descriptions  are  on  the  backs 
of  the  pictures,  and  make1  the  views  doubly  valu- 
able.    Thev  can  be  used  in  two  wavs: 


OQO        THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

1.  The  views  and  stereoscope  may  be  placed 
upon  a  table  and  each  pupil  in  the  class  required 
to  go  in  turn,  look  at  the  views,  and  read  the  de- 
scriptions, as  a  preparation  for  the  recitation. 

2.  The  stereoscope  with  an  appropriate  view 
may  be  started  through  the  class  during  a  recita- 
tion, it  being  understood  that  each  pupil  shall  have 
a  half  minute  to  look  at  the  view.  The  recitation, 
in  this  case,  does  not  stop.  When  all  selected 
views  have  gone  around,  each  pupil  may  be 
handed  a  particular  view  and  given  a  minute  or 
two  to  prepare  the  gist  of  the  description,  which 
he  then  recites  to  his  classmates. 

Everything  considered,  the  stereographic  pic- 
tures are  the  most  practical,  since  they  are  com- 
paratively inexpensive  and  always  ready  for  in- 
stant use. 

The  stereopticon  is  of  great  value  as  an  educa- 
tional help.  In  the  past  it  has  been  too  expensive 
for  many  schools.  Xow,  however,  good  lanterns 
are  much  cheaper  and  better.  The  electric  lantern 
is  the  most  practical  whore  a  current  is  available. 
Gasoline  lanterns  that  work  well  may  be  purchased 
for  a  comparatively  small  amount,  and  village 
schools  can  easily  afford  one.  Slides  are  some- 
what expensive,  but  this  difficulty  may  largely  be 
overcome  by  renting  them.  For  full  information 
concerning  lanterns,  lantern  slides,  stereographs 
and  stereographic  views,  apply  to  any  of  the  com- 
panies whose  addresses  are  given  in  the  bibliog- 
raphy, Chapter  XXII. 


THE     VALUE     OE    PICTURES  201 

SUGGESTIONS  AND  QUESTIONS. 

1.  Enumerate  the  values  of  pictures  in  teaching  geography. 

2.  What   are  the  characteristics  of  a  good   picture? 

3.  Which   conveys   the   clearer   ideas,    pictures    or   printed    descrip- 

tions?    Why? 

4.  How  can  text  book  pictures  be  used  to  good  a'dvantage? 

5.  Why   are  stereographic  views   of   much   value  in   teaching  geog- 

raphy? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Wood,    J.    A. — "Pictures    in   the    Teaching   of   Geography, ' '   Bull. 

Am.  Bu.  of  Geography,  Vol.  I,  No.  4. 
Jefferson,  Mark  S.  W. — "Stereoscopes  in  Schools,"  Jour,  of  Geog., 

Pre.,   1907. 
Grosvenor,    Gilbert    II. — "Scenes    from    Every    Land,"    National 

Geographic   Society,  Washington,  P.  C. 
Purlin,  C.  C. — "The  Stereopticon  in  the  High  School,"  Wisconsin 

Journal  of  Education,  May,  1908. 
Ilobbs,    William    Herbert — "The    Use    of    Lantern    Views    with 

Science  Lectures,"  Jour,  of  Geography,  April,   1909,  p.   180. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

The  Value  of  Illustrative  Materials  and  Field 

Work. 

topics  to  be  considered. 

The  school  museum;  directions  for  making;  its  value  in  teaching; 
useful  materials  it  should  contain;  the  museum  not  an  end  in 
itself. 

The  industrial  excursion;  the  phase  of  geography  it  emphasizes; 
what  excursions  to  make;  preparation  for  excursions;  subse- 
quent review  of  observations. 

Physiographic  field  work;  the  value  of  the  field  trip;  suggestive 
field  studies. 

I.      SCHOOL  MUSEUM. 

The  text  books  on  reading,  language  and  geog- 
raphy constantly  refer  to  objects  and  phenomena 
that,  as  yet,  are  outside  the  children's  experiences. 
A  large  part  of  the  process  of  education  consists 
in  familiarizing  the  child  with  new  things.  In 
order  that  pupils  shall  know  things  and  not 
merely  names  of  things,  other  means  than  text 
books  must  be  employed.  The  teacher  can  bring 
the  pupils  face  to  face  with  the  new  material  or 
phenomena. 

1.  By  means  of  the  School  Museum. 

2.  Through  the  School  Excursion. 

By  a  school  museum,  no  pretentious  "collection 
of  monstrosities,"  but  rather  a  modest  collection 

202 


204        THE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGEAPHY       • 

of  significant  things,  is  meant.  Geography  espe- 
cially refers  to  many  articles  of  commerce  which 
in  their  raw  condition  many  people  have  never 
seen,  and  the  ideas  of  which  are  vague  and  in- 
correct. 

There  will  be  needed  for  the  exhibit : 

1.  A  case  or  cabinet.  This  will  furnish  work 
for  manual  training.  The  pupils  will  bring 
needed  tools  and  lumber. 

2.  Bottles  in  which  to  preserve  grains,  seeds, 
berries,  sands,  soils,  etc.  The  pupils  will  bring 
many  bottles  from  home.  These  can  be  classified, 
and  answer  the  purpose.  "Wide  mouthed  bottles 
are  best. 

3.  Labels.  These  can  be  bought,  or  white 
paper  slips  will  answer,  if  a  bottle  of  library  paste 
is  in  the  room. 

4.  Boxes.  Small  pasteboard,  wood  and  cigar 
boxes  will  serve  as  specimen  trays  for  rocks,  min- 
erals, etc.  Boxes,  bottles,  etc,  can  be  picked  up 
as  needed. 

All  materials  should  be  neatly  labeled,  as: 

1.  Macaroni  Wheat, 

Commissioner  of  Immigration, 
AVinnipeg,  Canada. 

2.  Fossil  Fern. 

Collected  by  Edward  Roberts. 
Cape  Girardeau,  Missouri. 

Illustrative  materials  to  be  useful  must  be  con- 
veniently arranged,  so  that  no  time  need  be  lost 
in  presenting  them  to  the  class.  A  piece  of  granite 


VALUE   OF   ILLUSTRATIVE  MATERIALS  205 

from  some  monument  works ;  a  specimen  of  iron 
pyrites — ''fool's  gold";  a  piece  of  obsidian  from 
the  Rockies,  or  a  sample  of  red  hematite  from  the 
Superior  region,  passed  about  the  class  at  just  the 
proper  moment,  will  add  reality  to  the  teaching. 

There  are  numerous  manufacturing  companies 
that  furnish  gratis,  or  at  small  cost,  fine  exhibits, 
showing  processes  through  which  raw  materials 
pass  in  becoming  finished  products.  Some  of 
these  are  not  only  very  attractive  but  possess 
much  educative  value.  Not  infrequently  companies 
have  published  pamphlets  descriptive  of  their 
manufacturing  processes,  and  these,  of  course,  are 
correct,  and  are  the  very  best  sources  of  informa- 
tion. Through  the  alertness  and  activity  of  wide- 
awake teachers,  some  schools  have  line  museums 
of  illustrative  materials.  Almost  every  day  a 
teacher  can  draw  on  the  museum  for  an  article  to 
illustrate  some  point  in  reading,  language,  liter- 
ature, history  or  geography.  In  just  so  far  as 
such  materials  can  be  used  to  illustrate  new  ideas 
will  school  work  be  redeemed  from  the  formal  and 
meaningless  grind. 

SUGGESTIVE    MATERIALS. 

Minerals:  Red  Hematite,  Zinc-sulphide,  Iron- 
sulphide,  Cast  Iron,  "Wrought  Iron,  Slag,  Steel, 
Lead-sulphide,  Solder,  Galvanized  Iron,  Copper, 
Brass,  Mercury,  Aluminum,  Corundum,  Tin, 
Xickel. 

Rocks:  Gneiss,  Obsidian,  Breccia,  Coquina, 
Quart  site,     Anthracite    Coal,    Bituminous     Coal, 


206  THE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

Coke,  Marble,  Granite,  Limestone,  Shale,  Rock- 
phosphate. 

Grains:  Corn,  Oats,  Eve,  Wheat,  Flax,  Barley, 
Peas,  Kaffir  Corn,  Broom  Corn  (brush  with 
seeds).  Rice  on  Straw,  Buckwheat. 

Seeds:  Timothy,  Clover,  Millet,  Turnip,  Rad- 
ish, Lettuce,  Beet,  Beans,  Coffee,  Berries,  Cocoa 
Beans. 

Vegetable  Fibers:  Manila  Hemp,  Sisal,  Flax, 
Raphia,  Hemp,  Jute,  Cotton,  Rattan,  Bamboo, 
Pineapple  Filter,  Bast  Fiber. 

Spices:  Pepper,  Allspice,  Caraway,  Cloves, 
Ginger,  Cinnamon,  Nutmegs. 

Woods:  Pine,  White  and  Yellow,  Cedar,  Cy- 
press, Birch,  Oak,  Maple,  Ash,  Walnut,  Rosewood, 
Mahogany,  Hickory,  Elm,  Basswood,  Whitewood, 
( merry,  Corkwood. 

.MISCELLANEOUS   EXHIBITS. 

Petroleum  Products  Portland  Cement 

Silk  Furs 

Wool  Leathers 

Cotton  Nuts 

Cocoa  Corundum 

Wheat  and  Flour  Sands 

Corn  Products  Shells 

Coffee  Pebbles 

Spice  Feathers 

Grasses  Etc. 

The  collection  of  materials  for  school  museum 
furnishes  a  motive  to  become  familiar  with  many 


VALVE   OF   ILLUSTRATIVE   MATERIALS  207 

strange  materials,  and  to  discriminate  and  select 
for  a  purpose.  Through  a  movement  of  this  kind 
pupils  are  frequently  awakened,  and  the  formal 
hum-drum  of  school  may  for  a  time  give  way  to 
genuine  interest.  But,  after  all,  a  movement  of 
this  kind  is  secondary  to  the  real  work  of  the 
school.  It  should  not  be  spasmodic;  any  interest 
enlisted  should  be  made  permanent  and  applied 
to  the  substantial  work  of  the  school.  Recently, 
in  a  certain  school  known  to  the  writer,  the  collec- 
tion of  woods  led  to  the  learning  of  every  tree 
that  grew  in  the  district,  an  accomplishment  of 
no  little  moment.  This  spirit  might  extend  to 
other  fields  of  observation. 

The  teacher  who  undertakes  the  building  of  a 
museum  will  find  considerable  assistance  in 
"Commercial  Raw  Materials"*  an  inexpensive 
volume  "descriptive  of  the  origin,  processes  of 
preparation  and  uses  of  the  most  important  com- 
mercial materials." 

In  discussing  geographical  museums  AVillis  E. 
Johnson  writes  as  follows: 

"The  cabinet  may  not  only  contain  materials 
of  every  conceivable  kind  illustrating  products 
and  industries,  but  may  contain  pictures  and 
slides  illustrating  people  and  natural  and  artificial 
scenery.  The  central  museum  should  be  equipped 
with  apparatus,  an  auditorium  for  optical  projec- 
tion, and  in  proper  grades  the  magnifying  glass 
and  microscope  should  find  a  place.  The  loan  and 
exchange  idea  should  pervade  every  cabinet  col- 

*  Seo  Bibliography. 


208        TEE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

lection,  and  every  child  and  home  should  be  glad 
to  assist  and  contribute.  Exchanges  may  be  made 
not  only  among  schools  of  the  same  city,  but  ex- 
changes and  loans  may  extend  to  different  cities 
and  may  be  national  or  even  international  in 
character." 

Certain  companies  furnish  geographical  mu- 
seums or  cabinets  ready  for  use.  They  are  valu- 
able helps  in  teaching  commercial  geography. 
However,  the  writer  feels  that  the  adoption  of  the 
" ready  made"  cabinet  sacrifices  the  opportunity 
to  stimulate  interest  and  to  teach  lessons  in  geog- 
raphy by  building  a  museum  through  the  activi- 
ties of  the  school  itself.  A  poorer  collection  thus 
made  stands  for  more  educationally  than  a  better 
one  secured  by  direct  purchase.  On  two  occasions 
the  writer  has  had  members  of  his  classes  do  the 
planning,  conduct  the  correspondence,  and  make 
personal  visits  and  excursions  to  secure  mate- 
rials ;  and,  having  secured  contributions,  the 
pupils  wrote  descriptions  of  the  objects,  products, 
industries,  etc.,  with  such  care  that  they  became 
reliable  sources  of  information.  Such  initiative, 
guided  by  definite  motives,  is  indicative  of  an 
interest  that  brings  results. 

TT.       TXDrSTPJAT.    EXCTRSIOXS. 

Through  the  school  excursion,  teachers  should 
take  advantage  of  every  opportunity  to  study  the 
physical  phenomena  and  industrial  activities  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  schools.  Unless  actual  obser- 
vations   be    made    and    concrete   materials    used, 


VALUE    OF    ILLUSTRATIVE   MATERIALS  209 

geography  and  nature  study  soon  deteriorate  into 
a  mere  study  of  words,  barren  of  all  elear  ideas. 
The  object  of  the  excursion  is  bringing  together  at 
short  range  the  pupil  and  the  materials  to  be 
studied.  The  world  of  industry  is  the  only  genu- 
ine laboratory. 

The  industrial  excursion  emphasizes  the  human 
or  social  phase  of  geography.  Much  of  economics 
and  sociology  can  be  brought  out  through  the 
study  of  industries.  Even  intermediate  pupils 
will  comprehend  many  of  the  simple  social  rela- 
tionships made  apparent  through  the  study  of 
home  geography.  Through  this  phase  of  geog- 
raphy some  contribution  to  moral  training  may 
be  made. 

In  general,  the  study  of  industries  emphasizes 
the  need-  of  individual  men,  and  industrial  plants 
are  social  organizations  whose  function  it  is  to 
satisfy  these  needs. 

Modern  nations  practice  a  commercial  economy, 
and  sharp  contrasts  can  be  made  between  this 
economy  and  the  simple  self-sufficient  economy  of 
primitive  peoples,  and  of  our  New  England  grand- 
parents. Manufacture  and  commerce  depend  upon 
"commercial"  economy.  Hence  the  consideration 
of  commercial  needs  leads  to  the  study  of  indus- 
tries and  plants  as  follows  : 

NEED  OF   FOOD  SUPPLY. 

Butter  and  Cheese  Mak-      Flour  Mills 

iug  Canning  Factor)' 


210        THE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

A  Bakery  Pickling  Works 

Meat  Packing  Plant       Cereal  Mills,  etc. 
Corn  Products  Co. 

NEED    OF   A    CLOTHING    SUPPLY. 

Shoe  Factory  Woolen  Mills 

Cotton  Mills  Glove  Factory 

Lace  Factory  Hat  Factory 

NEED    OF    BUILDING    MATERIALS. 

Saw  Mills  Xail  Factory 

Planing  Mills  Concrete  Works 

Stone  Quarry  Brick  and  Tile  Works 

Paper  Mills  Sheet  Metal  Works 

NEED    OF   FARM   IMPLEMENTS. 

Wagon  Works  Plow  Factory 

Machine  Shop  Foundry 

Harvester  Works  Thresher  Works 

NEED   OF   TRANSPORTATION   FACILITIES. 

Locomotive  Works  Rolling  Mills 

Steel  Plate  Industry  Canal  Projects 

Subways  Elevated  Roads 

Tunnels  Terminal  Stations 

Ship  Building  Dry  Docks,  etc. 

In  making  an  excursion  the  teacher  should  al- 
ways have  clearly  in  mind  exactly  what  he  wishes 
the  pupils  to  observe.  Pupils  may  pass  by  inter- 
esting and  educative  phenomena  daily,  but  with- 
out the  guidance  of  the  teacher  mav  fail  to  see  the 


VALUE   OF   ILLUSTRATIVE   MATERIALS  211 

essential  features.  So  a  well-formulated  plan  of 
procedure  is  essential  to  good  results.  Illustra- 
tion of  this  is  seen  in  the  precise  and  systematic 
way  that  the  guides  of  certain  large  concerns  show 
visitors  through  their  plants. 

Not  a  little  of  the  value  of  an  excursion  depends 
upon  the  reviews,  explanations  and  discussions 
which  should  always  follow  in  the  class  room. 
Here  imperfect  observations  may  be  supple- 
mented and  misunderstood  processes  explained. 

The  reduction  to  writing  should  be  the  final 
step  in  th>s  work,  the  summaries  being  valuable  in 
unifying  and  associating  such  materials  as  pos- 
sess true  educative  value. 

TIT.       niVSTOGRAPHIC    1MELD    WORK. 

Much  has  been  said  about  field  work  in  geog- 
raphy, but  as  yet  little  is  done  in  the  public 
schools.  Excuses  are  made  by  grade  teachers  on 
the  ground  that  there  is  not  sufficient  time,  that 
it  cuts  into  other  work,  and  that  they  have  two 
classes  in  the  room,  and  therefore  cannot  take 
one  class  on  an  excursion.  This  is  probably  all 
true,  but  underneath  the  argument  there  is  an  as- 
sumption that  sonic1  other  work  is  of  greater  im- 
portance than  the  iield  work  in  geography.  AYe 
shall  not  argue  relative  importance,  but  simply 
state  that  if  geography  is  worth  doing  at  all.  it  is 
worth  doing  right.  And  let  us  repeat  that  geog- 
raphy in  the  past  has  been  a  formal  study  because 
teachers  have  kept  away  from  earth  and  life  and 
have  clung  tenaciously  to  the  text  book.     Schools 


212        THE   TEACHING  OE  GEOGRAPHY 

of  the  best  type  do  not  assume  to  teach  chemistry 
or  physics,  unless  they  have  some  sort  of  labor- 
atory and  a  workable  amount  of  apparatus.  This 
equipment  costs  considerable,  but  it  is  supplied. 
Then,  too,  double  periods  must  be  arranged  for 
laboratory  practice,  but  again  the  program  yields 
to  the  pressure.  When  grade  teachers  become 
convinced  that  field  work  is  highly  profitable,  and 
when  they  become  resourceful  enough  to  interest 
boys  and  girls  out  of  doors,  then  we  may  expect 
better  things.  Superintendents  recognize  the 
value  of  this  phase  of  geography.  The  writer  has 
often  experienced  the  recoil  of  otherwise  willing 
teachers  when  they  were  asked  to  do  some  field 
work.  It  is  also  said  that  the  discipline  is  diffi- 
cult, but  the  teacher  who  lacks  in  resources  finds 
it  equally  difficult  to  keep  order  inside.  The  school 
garden,  agriculture,  nature  study,  geography — 
these  all  make  new  demands  upon  the  teacher;  he 
must  be  equal  to  the  occasion — must  arise  to  the 
opportunity. 

It  may  be  said  of  nature  study  that  it  has  not 
been  systematic,  but  the  difficulty  lies  not  in  na- 
ture. It  may  be  some  time  before  the  great  body 
of  teachers  become  proficient  in  the  study  of  sci- 
ence at  first  hand,  but  the  only  alternative  is  to 
walk  in  the  light  we  already  have  and  pray  for 
more 

Would  one  become  proficient  in  physiography, 
then  what  can  take  the  place  of  a  well-directed 
trip  1"  Dune  Park.  Indiana;  to  Blue  Mounds  in 
the  Driftless  Area  of  Wisconsin;  to  the  Baraboo 


VALUE   OF  ILLUSTRATIVE   MATERIALS  213 

Ranges  and  Devils  Lake ;  to  Fort  Snelling,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Minnesota  and  Mississippi  rivers, 
St.  Paul,  Minnesota;  to  Minnehaha  Falls  in  Min- 
neapolis; or  to  Starved  Rock  on  the  Illinois  river? 
These  are  a  few  of  the  places  of  much  physio- 
graphic interest  in  the  Upper  Mississippi  Valley. 
A  score  of  others  almost  as  inviting  could  be 
named.  And  if  the  teacher  is  more  ambitious,  the 
National  Park,  Grand  Canon,  the  Park  and  the 
Selkirk  Mountains  are  yet  his  to  explore. 

But  field  work  is  not  beyond  the  possibility  of 
any  city,  village  or  country  school.  The  outlook 
may  be  less  inspiring  and  the  proportions  com- 
paratively mean,  but  it  is  quite  safe  to  assert  that 
within  a  single  mile  of  most  schools,  nature  dis- 
plays phenomena  as  truly  valuable  and  equally 
as  illustrative  as  are  those  more  picturesque  and 
stupendous  works  of  nature.  "Despise  not,  then, 
the  little  things."  Here  are  some  of  the  physio- 
graphic features  common  to  most  rural  schools. 
Visit  any  that  are  near. 

1.  River,  creek,  or  brook.  The  excursion 
should  be  made  for  the  purpose  of  studying  one 
or  two  definite  features,  and  just  at  a  time  when 
the  concrete  material  is  needed.  The  purpose  of 
the  trip  might  be  to  study  one  or  more  of  the  fol- 
lowing: flood  plains;  deltas;  terraces;  corrasion; 
meanders,  etc. 

2.  Hills  and  valleys,  as  results  of  erosion. 

.'■).  Gullies  and  ditches — along  country  high- 
ways.    Methods  of  checking. 

4.     Hills,  showing  effects  of  erosion  when  un- 


214  THE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

dor  cultivation-.    Compare  cultivated  hillside  with 
meadow  or  pastures  of  similar  slope. 

5.  Soils.  Collect  specimens  of  soils  from  dif- 
ferent fields.  Compare.  Preserve  samples  of 
sandy  soils,  clay  soils,  loam,  vegetable  mold,  etc. 

6.  Visit  a  gravel  pit.  Collect  specimens  of 
rocks  and  glacial  pebbles  for  your  museum. 

7.  Coal  mine  or  coal  bank.  Study  method  of 
mining.  Teach  lessons  on  coal.  Collect  fossils 
for  museum. 

8.  Stone  quarry.  Collect  specimens.  Study 
stratification,  faulting,  etc. 

9.  Clay  pit.    Preserve  specimen. 

10.  Lake  shore.  Study  shore  features,  wave 
action,  etc.,  etc. 

All  schools  will  not  have  the  same  or  equal  ad- 
vantages for  field  work,  but  each  should  make  the 
most  of  its  opportunities.  The  rural  teacher  who 
can  take  his  whole  school  to  the  roadside  to  study 
wild  flowers,  insects,  birds,  the  action  of  frost  or 
the  work  of  running  water,  has  an  advantage  over 
a  city  teacher,  who  with  a  larger  school  must 
make  a  longer  journey  to  come  in  contact  with 
nature  at  first  hand.  But  all  cities  and  many 
towns  offer  good  advantages  for  the  study  of 
manufacturing  industries  and  commerce.  The 
superintendent  should  assist  his  teachers  in  select- 
ing for  study  those  tilings  which  can  he  made 
interesting  and  profitable,  and  every  earnest 
teacher  who  will  try  repeatedly  will  grow  and  in 
the  end  will  succeed. 


VALUE   OF   ILLUSTRATIVE   MATERIALS  215 

SUGGESTIONS  AND  QUESTIONS. 

I.  Why   are   museums   and   excursions   necessary  to  the  best   geog- 

raphy teaching?     Without   them  what   would  probably  be  the 

character  of  the  instruction? 
•J.   What   effect    on  the   pupil's  interest   would  the  formation   of  a 

museum    have  ?     Is    it    possible    for    any    school    to    secure    a 

museum? 
;i.   What    are    the   opportunities   for   industrial   excursions   in   your 

vicinity? 
4.    How  would  you  plan  and  conduct  an  excursion? 
•~>.    Enumerate    the   field   trips    conveniently    near   your    school   that 

would  be  of  value  to  your  pupils. 
6.   Characterize  the  knowledge  gained  through  excursions  with  that 

gained  from  books  alone. 

FOR  FURTHER  STUDY. 

1.   Select  some  field  or  plot  of  ground  that  is  conveniently  located 

for   study. 
-.   Study   the    soils    during   their    preparation   for   planting.      Are 

they  clay,  loam  or  .sand?     Do  they  permit  of  easy  cultivation? 

3.  Observe  the  growing  crops.     Do  all  parts  of  the  field  equally 

favor  the  growth  of  plants? 

4.  Do   the  soils  maintain  moisture  well?     Is  the  cultivation  con- 

ducive to   preservation  of  moisture? 

•">.   Is  the  plot  subject  to  ''wash''?     How  does  this  affect  the  fer- 
tility of  its  parts?     Examine  soils  in  different  places. 

(J.   Are  there  different  crops  on  the  plot?     Which  seems  to  thrive 
best? 

7.   Does  the  season's  temperature  seem  to  be  right  for  the  grow- 
ing crops ? 

V    Is  the  rainfall  just  adequate? 

'.'.   Do  the  winds  affect  the  growing  crops?     In  what  way? 
10.    Have  the  growing  crops  animal  or  plant  enemies? 

II.  Observe  the  crop  until  maturity.     Is  the  crop  consumed  by  the 

producer  or  is  it  marketed?  If  sold,  at  what  market?  How 
transported?  Was  the  product  ready  for  use.  or  did  it  have  tc 
undergo  manufacture?  If  it  required  manufacture,  where  and 
how  wa.<  it  accomplished? 
12.  Write  an  essay  discussing  the  factors  that  enter  into  crop 
product  ion   in  your  locality. 


216  THE    TEACHING    OF    GEOGRAPHY 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Chamberlain,   J.   F. — How    We   Arc   Clothed,   Sheltered   and   Fed. 

3  Vols. 
Carpenter,  F.  G. — An  Industrial  Header,  Foods. 
Chase  and  Clow — Stories  of  Industry. 

McMurry,  C.  A. — Type  Studies  from  United  States  Geography. 
Eoeheleau,  W.  F. — Great  American  Industries,  Vol?.  I,  II  and  III. 
Lane,  M.  A.  L. — Industries  of  Today. 

Lyde — Man  and  His  Work:  Man  and  His  Markets.     2  Vols. 
Spon,  E.  &  F.  N. — Encyclopedia  of  Industrial  Arts.     3  Vols. 
King,  C.  F. — Geographical  Headers. 
Carpenter.  F.  G.- — Geographical  Headers. 
Redway,  J.  W. — Commercial  Geography. 
Trotter,  Spencer — Geography  of  Commerce. 
Iline,'   L.    W. — "Function   of  the   School   Excursion,''   Journal   of 

Geography,  Dec,  1905. 
Ridgley,  D.   C. — "Excursions  and  the  School   Museum   as  Aids  in 

Teaching  Geography,"  Journal  of  Geography,  Sept.,  1904. 
King,    C.    F. — "Methods    and    Aids    in    Geography,-'    Sources    of 

Geographical  Pictures,  pp.  251-3. 
Jefferson,    M.    S.    W. — "Outdoor  Work  in   Geography,''   Proc.   N. 

E.  A.,  1904. 
Fairbanks,  H.  W. — Home  Geography. 
Gulliver,  E.  P.— "Outdoor  Class  Work,"  Proc.  X.  E.  A.,  1903,  p. 

S56. 
McMurry,  C.  A. — "Home  Geography  Excursions."'  Special  Method 

in  Geography,  Chap.  III. 
PeRiemer,  Alicia — "Value  of  Geographical  Exhibitions,"  Jour,  of 

Geog.,  March,  1903. 
Hubbard,  Geo.  D— "  On  the  Field  Trip,"  School  Science,  Vol.  Ill, 

p.  395. 
Eidgley,   Douglas   ('. — "Leaflets   from   the   Commercial    Museum." 

Nos.  1-7  out,  others  in  preparation,  Normal,  Illinois. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

Suggestions  on  Weather  Study, 
topics  to  be  considered. 

Of  what  value  is  weather  study;  helps  for  the  teachers;  how  to 
make  simple  apparatus;  suggestive  exercises  with  the  helior; 
exercises  to  show  atmospheric  pressure;  how  to  show  convec- 
tion currents  in  air  ami  water;  hints  on  the  study  of  cyclones; 
suggestive  exercises  based  on  the  daily  weather  map;  exercises 
to  show  that  air  absorbs  and  deposits  moisture;  the  two  forms 
of  heat   energy. 

Suggestions  on  the  study  of  wind  velocities,  state  of  sky,  and  rain- 
fall; how  to  keep  a  weather  record. 

"Weather  study  may  he  made  a  part  of  the  na- 
ture study  or  of  the  geography  proper.  It  should 
he  kept  up  throughout  the  year.  Often  a  few  min- 
utes— two  or  three  minutes  daily — are  sufficient. 
There  is  no  phase  of  geography  more  practical 
than  weather  study.  There  are  many  ridiculous 
signs  and  superstitions  relating  to  weather 
changes,  and  the  teacher  has  a  fine  opportunity 
to  do  much  good  by  teaching  a  few  scientific  facts 
in  elementary  meteorology.  The  following  mate- 
rials and  helps,  most  of  which  are  free,  are  recom- 
mended. Teachers  are  urged  to  secure  them  for 
their  schools : 

1.  The  Daily  Weather  Map.  This  should  come 
to  every  school,  especially  if  on  a  rural  de- 

217 


218  THE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

livery  route.  Send  a  request  to  the  nearest 
Weather  Bureau,  stating  that  you  are  a 
teacher.  A  file  for  holding  the  maps  can  be 
had  on  application. 

2.  Cloud  Chart.     Frame  if  possible.     Keep  it 
before  the  pupils. 

3.  "Amplification    of    AVeather    Forecasts." 
Circular  by  Alfred  J.  Henry. 

•4.      Circular.    Explanation  of  AVeather  ATap. 
5.     Climate:  Its  Physical  Basis  and  Controlling 
Factors.    AVillis  L.  Aloore. 

0.  Circular.    The  AVeather  Bureau. 

7.  Circular  F.    Barometers.    C.  F.  Marvin. 

8.  Inst  ructions  for  Voluntary  Observers.  AVil- 
lis L.  Aloore. 

Where  other  addresses  are  not  given,  apply  to 
"The  AVeather  Bureau,"  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  AVashington,  I).  C. 

Some  simple  apparatus  will  also  be  very  help- 
ful and  some  of  it,  at  least,  can  be  made  in  the 
school. 

1.  A  Thermometer.  Every  school  should  have 
a  thermometer  for  the  purpose  of  regulating  the 
school  room  temperature.  A  chemical  thermom- 
eter will  answer  a  double  purpose. 

'2.  A  Mercurial  Barometer.  This  instrument 
costs  several  dollars,  but  a  fairly  good  one  can  be 
made  for  75  cents.  Its  construction  will  furnish 
a  motive  for  manual  training  work. 

A  home-made  barometer  would  be  a  valuable 
contribution  to  a  school.    Stndv  Circular  F. 


SUGGESTIONS  ON  WEATILEE  STUDIES 


21& 


'  i 


Directions  for  making.  Close  one  end  of  a  glass 
tube  42  inches  long  and  l/±  inch  in  diameter,  using 
a  gas  or  alcohol  flame  to  soften  the  glass.  About 
34  inches  from  the  closed  end  make  a  "U"  shaped 
bend.  Slowly  pour  in  mercury  (about  2  pounds 
will  be  required)  until  both  arms  of  the 
tube  are  filled.*  A  piece  of  rubber  tub- 
ing, one  end  of  which  is  fitted  to  the 
open  arm  of  the  glass  tube  and  the  other 
attached  to  a  funnel,  affords  a  conve- 
nient method  for  introducing  the  mer- 
cury. Incline  the  glass  tube  toward  a 
horizontal  position  while  pouring  in 
the  mercury.  When  both  arms  are  filled, 
place  the  tube  in  a  vertical  position  and 
mount  on  a  smooth  board  on  which  is  a 
scale  in  inches  and  centimeters. 

The  true  reading  of  the  barom°ter 
will  be  the  difference  between  the 
heights  of  the  two  mercurial  columns. 
Hang  the  instrument  in  a  safe  place. 
Read  it  daily. 

3.  A  Helior  or  Sun  Board.  This 
little  instrument  can  be  made  by  the 
ng.  g.  teacher  or  older  pupils  of  the  class. 
It  is  a  good  piece  of  work  for  manual  training,  and 
can  be  used  fo  excellent  advantage  in  establishing 
basal  ideas  of  temperature.  Directions:  From 
1 './'  wood  make  a  square  tube  3//x3'/  inside  meas- 
urement   and    10"   long.      Prepare    a    base-board 


*  If  advantages  permit,  the  mercury  in  the  tube  may  be  boiled  to 
drive  out  any  bubbles  of  air. 


220 


THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGEAPHY 


36"x4",  using  1"  material.  To  its  edges  attach  a 
1  •>"  vertical  strip  o6"xo".  By  means  of  light 
hinges  attached  to  one  end  of  the  tube,  fasten  it 
to  the  middle  of  the  base-board.  The  tube  should 
be  so  adjusted  that  when  moved  its  side  will  just 
touch  the  vertical  strip. 

Secure  a  cheap  protractor,  or  make  one  from 
light  card-board,  and  fasten  it  to  the  side  of  the 
helior  tube  as  shown  in  Fig.  7.  A  short  plumb 
line  properly  attached  to  the  protractor  will,  as 
it  crosses  the  arc,  indicate  the  inclination  of  the 
tube.  A  light  metal  strip,  one  end  of  which  is  fas- 
tened to  the  tube  and  the  other  to  the  sliding  block 
[see  cut],  will  hold  the  tube  at  any  desired  angle. 


4 


Fig.    7. 


4.  A  Hygrometer,  or  "Wet  and  Dry  Bulb  Ther- 
mometer. Two  cheap  thermometer  tubes  attached 
side  by  side  to  a  small  board  will  answer  if  a 
better  form  cannot  be  had.  Around  the  bulb  of 
oik;  thermometer  wrap  one  end  of  a  lamp-wick, 
immersing  the  other  end  of  the  wick  in  water  held 
in  a  small  bottle,  also  attached  to  the  board.  The 
other  bulb  will  be  exposed  to  the  moisture  of  the 


SUGGESTIONS  ON  WEATHEB  STUDIES  221 

atmosphere  only.  A  table  from  which  the  relative 
and  absolute  humidities  can  be  obtained  may  be 
found  in  a  book  on  meteorology. 

5.  A  Rain  Gauge.  A  can  with  perpendicular 
sides  set  "in  the  open"  will  answer  the  purpose 
of  a  rain  gauge  in  approximating  the  rainfall. 
Circular  No.  250,  "Instructions  for  Voluntary 
Observers,"  gives  full  information.     (See  p.  218.) 

SIMPLE   EXERCISES   WITH   THE   HELIOR. 

1.  Set  the  helior  in  the  sun  at  noon  in  a  level, 
north-south  position,  and  so  adjust  the  tube  that 
all  sides  are  lighted  directly  by  the  sun.  This 
position  is  secured  when  shadows  are  absent.  If 
the  tube  is  too  high,  a  shadow  will  appear  on  its 
upper  surface;  if  too  low,  on  its  lower  surface, 
etc.  Now  the  angle  shown  between  the  lower  edge 
of  the  tube  and  the  base-board  will  represent  the 
noon  altitude  of  the  sun.  If  the  middle  point  of 
the  protractor  arc  be  designated  zero,  the  mar- 
ginal number  at  the  intersection  of  the  plumb-line 
and  arc  will  indicate  the  numerical  value  of  the 
sun's  altitude. 

2.  With  the  helior  tube  in  the  position  indi- 
cated in  1.  note  the  lighted  rectangular  area 
within  the  shaded  boundary  lines.  Determine  the 
length  and  width  of  this  area.  The  beam  of  sun- 
light that  enters  the  tube  will  be  projected  upon  a 
surface  as  wide  as  the  tube,  and  will  vary  in  length 
with  the  altitude  of  the  sun. 

Xow  if  the  sun's  ravs  were  vertical,  a  surface 


222        THE  TEACH  I XG  OE  GEOGEAPHY 

of  9  square  inches  would  receive  all  of  the  light 
and  heat  entering1  the  mouth  of  the  helior  tube. 
The  altitude  of  the  sun  would  in  this  case  be  90°. 
As  the  sun  never  reaches  this  altitude  north  of 
the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  the  light  and  heat  entering 
the  tube  will  be  distributed  over  a  rectangular 
surface  somewhat  larger  than  9  square  indies. 
Thus  on  September  23 — the  autumnal  equinox — 
the  noon  altitude  of  the  sun  at  Platteville,  Wis- 
consin, is  approximately  47°.  At  noon  on  this 
date  the  helior.  with  dimensions  as  given  above, 
will  show  a  lighted  area  of  13^  square  inches. 
It  is  evident  that  the  intensity  of  light  and  heat 
will  then  be  two-thirds  as  great  at  -4.3d  north  lati- 
tude as  at  the  equator.* 

From  the  above  exercise,  pupils  will  under- 
stand why  the  more  nearly  vertical  rays  between 
the  tropics  make  that  region  hotter  than  other  re- 
gions, and  why  it  is  called  the  Torrid  Zone. 

3.  Properly  adjust  the  helior  tube  to  show  the 
area  heated  and  lighted  at  nine  o'clock.  Compare 
with  area  heated  and  lighted  at  twelve  o'clock, 
and  again  at  four  p.  m.  At  what  hour  do  we  re- 
ceive the  more  nearly  vertical  rays?  The  earth  is 
receiving  the  maximum  of  heat  at  this  hour,  but 
the  thermometer  will  register  higher  at  two  or 
three  p.  m..  as  more  heat  at  that  time  will  be  radi- 
ated by  the  earth  into  the  atmosphere. 


27  1R      27       3  1S 

»  K'.i.j  ;    !l     =-      ;    •      =  -   of  — ;    since    at    an    altitude    of    IT1    a 

l,i  n m   of  lijrht   and  boat   is  distributed  over  |  the  area  that  it  would  be 
were  the  altitude  90'',  it  follows  that    the    intensity    will    be   only  z  as 

Cleat. 


SCGGESTIONS  ON   WEATHER  STUDIES 


22.' 


Those  generalizations  will  be  very  useful  in 
understanding  the  temperature  of  different  parts 
of  the  earth's  surface. 


SAMFLE-  HELIOFZ  RECOfZD 


Date 


Attitudes 
o  f  Sctn 


C  rots  Sect  /'on 
of  LJgktBeom 


A raa    of 
Beam  Distribution 


Ratio  of 
Area,? 


Rotro      O-f 


Saf*23 


17 


IS 


s  ■ib 


4-3 


SIMPLE    EXERCISES    TO    SHOW    ATMOSPHERIC    PRESSURE. 

1.  Fill  a  basin  with  water.  Press  a  bottle, 
mouth  downward,  into  the  water.  AYhy  does  not 
the  bottle  fill.'     Hoes  this  show  air  pressure? 

2.  Fill  a  bottle  with  water.  Hold  the  hand 
over  the  mouth  and  invert.  Lower  the  mouth  of 
the  bottle  into  water  and  remove  the  hand.  Why 
does  the  water  remain  in  the  bottle.'  Does  this 
show  aii-  pressure ?     If  so.  in  what  direction? 

3.  Fill  a  bottle  (level  full)  with  water.  Press 
with  the  palm  of  the  hand  a  piece  of  heavy  writing 
paper  evenly  over  its  mouth.  Holding  the  hand 
in  this  position  invert  the  bottle  and  carefully 
remove  the  hand.  "Why  does  not  the  water  run? 
Dees  this  show  air  pressure?     In  what  direction? 

EXERCISES   TO    SHOW    CONVECTION    CURRENTS. 


1.     TTeat   a   beaker  of  water   in   which   a   little 
sawdust  has  been  placed,  by  applying  a  flame  to 


224  THE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

the  bottom  of  the  glass  near  one  side.  In  what 
direction  does  the  water  directly  over  the  fiame 
move  ?  In  what  direction  is  it  moving  on  the  other 
side  of  the  glass?  Why?  Is  a  circuit  established? 
How  will  all  of  the  water  become  heated? 

2.  School  rooms  heated  by  stoves  illustrate 
convection  currents.  Show  by  experiment  that 
the  air  above  the  stove  rises ;  that  the  air  on  the 
floor  flows  toward  the  stove.  With  the  school 
thermometer,  take  the  temperatures  on  the  floor 
and  near  the  ceiling.  Trace  some  of  the  circuits 
of  the  air  in  the  school  room. 

CONVECTION    CURRENTS    IN    THE    ATMOSPHERE  ; 
CYCLONES. 

The  great  storms  that  pass  over  the  country 
with  considerable  regularity  are  cyclones.  Cor- 
rect the  current  notion  that  the  violent  de- 
structive storms  are  cyclones;  they  are  tornadoes. 
Cyclones,  or  cyclonic  storms,  are  shown  on  all 
weather  maps  of  the  United  States.  But  in  order 
to  teach  the  use  of  the  Daily  Weather  Map,  one 
rather  difficult  notion  must  be  developed,  viz.,  the 
idea  of  atmospheric  or  barometric  pressure.  The 
teacher  even  without  the  mercurial  barometer  will 
lie  able,  little  by  little,  to  establish  the  idea. 

Air  surrounds  the  earth  to  a  depth  of  two  hun- 
dred miles  or  more,  but  almost  half  of  it  is 
within  throe  miles  of  the  earth's  surface.  Xow 
when  the  air  is  considerably  heated  over  a  large 
urea,  it  rises  in  the  same  manner  that  it  does  over 


SUGGESTIONS  ON   WEATHER  STUDIES 


225 


the  stove  in  the  school  room.  The  upward  move- 
ment of  air  reduces  the  downward  pressure  below 
it  and  may  be,  therefore,  one  cause  of  a  low.*    But 


Fig.    8. 

the  air  having-  risen,  forms  a  swell  down  the  sides 
of  which  the  upper  portions  slowly  flow.  Thus  the 
horizontal  motion  of  the  upper  currents  is  away 
from  the  low,  toward  areas  over  which  the  air  is 
less  disturbed  by  heat;  here  it  slowly  settles,  the 
weight  of  the  added  upper  layers  pressing'  the 
lower  ones  into  thinner  and  thinner  strata.  This 
increased  mass  and  downward  motion  of  the  air 
cause  greater  pressure.  Atmospheric  regions  of 
this  kind  are  highs  or  anticyclones. 

Owing  to  the  earth's  rotation,  surface  currents 
always  flow  spirally  upward  from  regions  of 
greater  to  regions  of  less  pressure.  These  incom- 
ing spiral  currents  form  a  great  whirl  or  eddy  in 
which  the  air  slowly  rises,  its  velocity  increasing 
as  the  confer  is  approached.  Such  an  upward 
whirl  is  generally  a  low  or  cyclone.  Tn  the  cy- 
clonic whirl,  the  movement  is  always  to  the  right, 

*  It   is  not  to  bo  inferred  that   temperature   disturbances  explain   the 
orkiin  of  cyclones.      Sec  Abuui   tin     Wiutlicr,    Harrington,    p.    117. 


226  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

in  [lie  northern  hemisphere.  Upward  currents  of 
air  always  expand  and  cool,  hence  it  usually  rains 
in  low  pressure  areas.  A  falling"  barometer  sig- 
nifies low  pressure  and  therefore  a  storm. 

Downward  currents  of  air  are  always  being 
warmed  as  a  result  (1)  of  their  approach  to  land 
or  water  which  is  wanner  than  the  upper  air,  and 
(2)  of  the  increased  air  pressure  at  lower  levels. 
The  increased  pressure  condenses  the  air  and  as  it 
is  condensed,  heat  is  set  free.  A  large  area  of 
slowly  settling  air  is  called  a  high.  As  the  tem- 
perature of  such  air  rises,  its  capacity  for  mois- 
ture increases.  Precipitation  is  not  likely  to  occur 
and,  in  general,  highs  indicate  fair  weather. 

Older  students  can  be  taught  the  meaning  of 
isobars  and  isotherms  from  the  weather  map. 

Our  prevailing  winds  are  westerlies.  A  sudden 
shift  of  the  wind  to  the  east  indicates  the  ap- 
proach of  a  storm  from  the  west.  The  shift  will 
be  accompanied  also  by  a  falling  barometer,  and 
it  can  easily  be  noted  that  the  temperature  is 
rising.  Correct  the  prevalent  notion  that  a  hu- 
mid, cloudy,  or  foggy  atmosphere  is  heavy.  Mois- 
ture settles  when  the  air  is  unable  to  buoy  it  up. 

Xo  more  practical  lesson  can  be  learned  than 
that  of  forecasting  the  weather  a  day  or  two 
ahead.  Pupils  in  the  upper  grades  can  do  this  by 
observing  direction  of  winds,  state  of  sky,  tem- 
perature, and  pressure.  Teach  children  that  the 
long-range  forecasts  seen  so  often  in  the  local 
newspapers  are  unreliable. 

Teach    the    children    how    to    tell   whether    the 


SUGGESTIONS  ON   WEATHER  STUDIES  227 

storm  ccntci's  pass  north  or  south  of  their  locality. 
Since  winds  blow  toward  the  low  or  storm,  if  the 
wind  is  east,  the  storm  is  west.  If  the  wind  is 
south,  the  storm  is  north.  If  the  wind  is  south- 
west, the  storm  is  northeast.  If  the  wind  is  west, 
the  storm  is  east.  Hence,  in  this  instance,  the 
storm  center  passed  north  of  the  observer. 
Hence — 

1.  If  the  wind  shifts  from  the  east  to  the  west  by 
way  of  the  south,  the  storm  center  passes  north  of 
the  observer. 

2.  If  the  wind  shifts  from  the  east  to  the  west  by 
way  of  the  north,  the  storm  center  passes  south  of 
the  observer. 

Teacher  and  pupils  should  observe  the  shifting 
winds  and  make  inferences  relative  to  the  paths 
of  cyclonic  storms. 

Since  winds  flow  in  spirally  to  the  storm  center 
it  follows  that- 
East  winds  start  in  the  south. 
South  winds  start  in  the  west. 
West  winds  start  in  the  north. 
North  winds  start  in  the  east. 

SIMPLE   SUGGESTIVE  EXERCISES  FOR  STUDY  OF 
CYCLONIC    STORMS. 

1.  Cut  a  2"  square  from  transparent  paper. 
Lay  the  square  directly  over  the  word  ''Low"  on 
a  weather  map.  Trace  the  word  "Low"  and  the 
arrows  about  it  that  indicate  wind  directions. 
Transfer  the  square  to  another  "Low"  and  make 


228 


TEE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


the  two  words  coincide.  Trace  in  the  arrows 
again.  Repeat  for  four  or  five  lows.  "What  do 
you  conclude  as  to  wind  directions  near  lows] 

2.  On  an  outline  map  of  the  United  States 
show  by  an  isobar  the  location  of  a  low  on  succes- 
sive days  as  it  crosses  the  continent.  Make  a 
heavy  dotted  line  to  show  the  storm  track.    Meas- 


ure, by  means  of  the  scale,  the  distance  traveled 
each  24  hours.  Average  a  dozen  measurements 
to  secure  the  approximate  velocity  of  cyclones. 

3.  Trace  several  isotherms  through  lows  found 
in  the  Mississippi  basin.  Xote  the  bends  which 
the  isotherms  make.  In  what  direction  do  they 
bend  in  front  of  the  low?  In  the  rear?  [See 
Fig.  9.]  Remembering  what  has  been  said  about 
wind  directions,  account  for  these  bends.  Why 
are  our  west  winds  cool  in  summer  and  cold  in 
winter  .' 


SUGGESTIONS  ON  WEATHER  STUDIES  229 

4.  Observe  the  cloud  and  rain  areas  as  lows 
cross  the  country.  In  which  direction  from  the 
cyclonic  center  is  the  largest  cloud  and  rain  area? 
Which  wind  brings  the  most  moisture?  "Why? 
From  what  source  does  most  of  our  moisture 
come  ? 

5.  Note  the  clouds  frequently.  Learn  the  dif- 
ferent classes  by  reference  to  the  Cloud  Chart. 

6.  Take  the  whole  school  on  an  excursion. 
Observe  the  general  direction  toward  which  the 
trees  lean.  What  is  this  direction?  On  which 
side  of  trees  are  the  branches  usually  longer? 
Why? 

7.  Watch  the  direction  of  the  little  whirlwinds 
so  often  seen  in  spring'  and  summer.  Account 
for  their  general  direction. 

SIMPLE    EXERCISES    TO    SHOW    THAT    AIE    DEPOSITS    AXD 
ABSORBS     MOISTURE. 

1.  Fill  a  cup  or  glass  pitcher  with  ice  water. 
Xote  the  moisture  that  collects  on  the  outer  sur- 
face. Where  did  the  moisture  come  from?  Why 
did  it  collect? 

2.  Into  similar  shallow  dishes  place  equal 
quantities  of  water.  Set  the  dishes  near  each 
other — one  in  the  sunshine  and  the  other  in  the 
shade.  Compare  the  times  required  for  evapora- 
tion.    K.\ plain.    What  causes  water  to  evaporate? 

3.  Place  equal  volumes  of  water  in  two  dishes, 
one  broad  and  shallow,  the  other  narrow  and  deep. 
Compare    the    times    required    for    evaporation. 


230  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

SIMPLE  EXERCISES  TO   SHOW   FORMS  OF  HEAT   ENERGY. 

1.  Set  an  open  dish  of  cold  water  on  the  stove 
or  place  it  over  an  alcohol  flame.  Introduce  the 
bulb  of  a  thermometer  and  take  the  reading. 
Have  pupils  note  the  rise  of  mercury  as  the  water 
heats.  Take  the  reading  when  the  water  boils. 
Continue  to  apply  heat.  Does  the  mercury  con- 
tinue to  rise  after  the  water  boils?  Can  water 
be  heated  beyond  the  boiling  point  in  open  ves- 
sels? Is  evaporation  rapid  at  this  temperature? 
Hold  a  piece  of  cold  glass  above  the  vessel  and 
note  the  collection  of  vapor  on  it.  What  becomes  of 
heat  energy  after  the  water  boils.  Is  there  much 
heat,  then,  in  vapor?  If  the  vapor  be  condensed, 
can  this  heat  (latent)  be  set  free?  Which  burns 
more  severely,  boiling  water  or  steam?  Why? 
When  vapor  condenses  into  clouds,  is  heat  set 
free?    Is  it  usually  warm  when  it  rains? 

2.  Set  a  dish  of  water  containing  ice  over  a 
flame.  Introduce  the  thermometer  bulb.  Xote  the 
reading.  Watch  the  mercury  as  the  melting  ad- 
vances. Does  it  rise?  What  is  the  heat  energy 
doing?  Why  does  not  the  water  heat  ?  Is  there 
heat  in  the  water  that  comes  from  melting  ice? 
Xote  the  mercury  at  the  moment  the  ice  is  all 
melted.  Does  it  rise  from  that  time,  on?  What  is 
the  heat  energy  now  doing?  Is  there  heat  (latent) 
in  all  water?  When  water  freezes  is  heat  set  free? 
What  effect  have  freezing  water-bodies  on  adja- 
cent lands? 

3.  Pour  a  few  drops  of  ether,  alcohol,  or  am- 


SUGGESTIONS  ON   WEATHER  STUDIES  231 

monia   in   the   open  palm   of  each   pupil.     What 
becomes  of  it?     Why  does  the  hand  feel  cold? 

For  the  convenience  of  teachers  who  have  no 
references  at  hand  some  information  concerning 
wind  velocities,  state  of  sky,  and  precipitation  is 
given  below. 

WIND    VELOCITIES     (ACCORDING    TO    II.    A.    HAZEN, 
UNITED   STATES   WEATHER   BUREAU ). 

0.  Calm. 

1.  Light  breeze  ;  just  moving  leaves  of  trees. 

2.  Moderate  wind  ;  moving  branches. 

3.  Brisk  wind;  swaying  branches;  blowing  up 
dust. 

4.  High  wind;  blowing  up  twigs  from  ground; 
swaying  whole  trees. 

5.  Gale;   breaking   small   branches;    loosening 
bricks  on  chimneys. 

6.  Hurricane    or    tornado;    destroying   every- 
thing in  its  path. 

STATE   OF   SKY    (ACCORDING  TO   WARD). 

A  Sky  3-10  or  less  cloudy  is  marked  on  weather 
map  Clear. 

A  Sky  .'MO  to  7-10  cloudy  is  marked  Fair. 
A  Sky  over  7-10  cloudy  is  marked  Cloudy. 

If  the  teacher  follows  the  suggestions  concerning 
the  securing  of  a  cloud-chart,  the  pupils  will  soon 
learn  the  principal  kinds  of  clouds,  and  a  column 
can  be  added  to  the  weather  record  under  the 
heading,  "  Kinds  of  Clouds." 


2  3  2 

V  (J  v 


TEE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


RAINFALL. 

Under  this  term  are  included  rain,  hail,  sleet, 
and  snow.  Precipitation  is  the  term  usually  em- 
ployed. Rainfall  is  measured  in  inches.  About  ten 
inches  of  snow  give  one  inch  of  water,  but  there 
is  much  variation  in  the  density  of  snow. 

THE  WEATHER  RECORD. 

Rule  a  large  sheet  of  paper,  as  suggested  below, 
for  a  "Weather  Record."  Fill  in  daily  with  ob- 
served data.  Each  pupil  in  the  upper  grades 
should  "rule  off"  pages  in  his  geography  note 
book,  and  keep  an  individual  weather  record. 

SAMPLE    WEATHER    RECORD.       XOX-IXSTRUMEXTAL 
OBSERVATIOXS. 


riotn    '    n™.      Tempera-  '       Wind      |    Wind 
Date   i    uour          ture       |  r)iroction    Velocity 

State 
of 
Sky 

Precipi- 
tation 

Remarks 

Dec.  18     !)  a.  m,     Very  Cold  ,      N.  W. 
Dec.  IS    4  p.  in.     Very  Cold  '      X.  W. 

1 

Brisk 
Brisk 

Clear 
Clear 

None 
None 

Every- 
thing 

Frozen 

Same 

Condition 

A  column  headed  "Barometric  Pressure"  may 
well  be  added  to  the  weather  record.  Schools  that 
teach  ninth  and  tenth  grade  work  would  do  well 
to  make  the  barometer,  and  also  a  hygrometer.  If 
the  latter  be  made,  a  column  headed  "Humidity" 
may  appear  in  the  weather  record." 

In  order  that  pupils,  especially  in  rural  districts, 
may  apply  the  knowledge  gained  in  weather  study, 
such  phenomena  may  well  be  associated  with  social 


*  Ward'-     1'ractienl    E 
tin     I'm.  -    rn-nti-iiMMl 


in    M<  tciirolori!)    V.i    very    helpful    along 


SUGGESTIONS  ON  WEATHER  STUDIES  233 

events  and  industries.  Professor  Willis  L.  Moore 
suggests  the  following  as  items  of  record  : 

Time  of  plowing  in  the  spring. 

Time  of  planting  and  seeding  various  crops. 

Time  of  appearance  of  same  above  ground. 

Time  of  flowering  of  strawberries,  currants, 
raspberries,  apples,  plums,  and  other  fruit. 

Time  of  commencement  of  haying. 

Time  of  commencement  of  harvesting  cereals. 

Time  of  ripening  of  various  fruits. 

The  time  of  migration  of  wild  fowl  and  birds. 

The  time  of  leafing  and  fall  of  leaves  in  decidu- 
ous forests. 

The  date  of  breaking  up  of  ice  in  large  rivers. 

The  date  of  greatest  rise  and  lowest  water  in 
important  streams. 


SUGGESTIONS    AND    QUESTIONS. 

1.  Of  what   importance   to  the  pupil  is  a  study  of  the  weather? 

2.  Is  there  any  excuse  for  simply  talking  about  the  weather? 
What  should  the  teacher  do? 

3.  What  pieces  of  helpful  apparatus  can  be  made  in  the  school? 
Is  there  any  value  in  making  them  rather  than  buying  them? 

4.  How  can  you  measure  the  altitude  of  the  sun?  How  can  you 
show  children  that  the  more  nearly  vertical  rays  of  the  sun 
yield  more  heat  and  light  than  rays  less  nearly  vertical? 

f>.  What  is  a  convection  current  ?  Why  should  we  develop  this 
idea  with  pupils?  What  relations  do  convection  currents  bear 
to  planetary  winds?     Explain  fully. 

<i.    What  is  a  cyclonic  storm?     Is  this  expression   often   misused? 

7.  What  transformation  in  heat  energy  accompanies  the  con- 
densation of  moisture?  The  vaporization  of  water?  The 
freezing  of  water?  The  melting  of  ice?  Can  you  apply  the 
principle    involved    in    each    case    to   weather   temperatures? 


234  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

8.  Of  what  value  to  the  pupil  is  the  keeping  of  a  daily  weather 
record? 

9.  To  what  extent  can  a  knowledge  of  weather  conditions  func- 
tion  in    daily   life? 

FOR   FURTHER   STUDY. 

1.  The  sunshine  which  exactly  covers  one  acre  on  the  equator  at 

noon,  March  21,  would  cover  what  area  at  40°   north  latitude? 
40c    south   latitude? 

2.  Demonstrate:  The  intensity  of  heat  and  light  varies  with 
the  altitude  of  the  sun. 

3.  At  noon  on  June  21,  the  sun's  altitude  is  observed  to  be  49°. 
What  is  the  observer's  latitude  if  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere? 
If  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere? 

4.  At  noon  September  11'2  an  observer  at  St.  Petersburg  will  see 
the  sun  at  what  altitude? 

5.  Knowing  the  day  of  the  month,  if  given  the  observer's  lati- 
tude, can  you  find  the  sun's  altitude?  If  given  the  sun's 
altitude,  can  you  find  the  observer's  latitude?  Make  problems 
to  illustrate. 

6.  Draw  a  1"  square  to  represent  the  distribution  of  sunshine 
at  noon  on  the  equator  at  equinoctial  time.  Using  the  same 
scale,  draw  figures  to  show  the  distribution  of  sunshine  at 
latitudes  20°,  40°,  (]t)D ,  and  80°  north  or  south  latitude.  Vary 
the  exercises. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Jefferson.  M.  S.  W. — "Influence  of  Ponds  and  Rivers  on  Atmos- 
pheric Climate,"  Journal  of  Geography,   Vol.    I. 

Jackman,  Wilbur  S.,  Nature  Study  for  Grammar  Grades,  Chap.  HI. 

Surface,  II.  A. — ''.Mathematical  Geography,"  Journal  School  Geog- 
raphy,   Jan.,    1900. 

Harrington,   M.  W. — About  the  Weather,  1).  Appleton  Co. 

Waldo,  Frank — Elementary  Meteorology,  American  Book  Co. 

Davis,  YV.  M. — Elementary  Meteorology,  (linn  &  Co. 

Moore,  Willis  L. — "Instructions  for  Voluntary  Observers,"  U.  S. 
Weather  Bureau. 

Ward,  Robert  De  Courcy — Practical  Exercises  in  Meteorology,  Ginn 

Dickson — ''Atmosphere    and    Climate,"   Geog.    dour..    Vol.    X. 

Mill,  II.  R. — International  Geography,  Chapter  VII,  D.  Appleton  Co. 

Mill,  II.  R. —  Realm  of  Nature,  Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

Maps  and  Models  and  Their  Uses. 
topics  to  be  coxsideeed. 

Mans;  what  are  the  characteristics  of!  good  maps.'  classification 
of  simps. 

Map  drawing;  requirements  of  good  map  drawing  exercises;  illus- 
t  rat  ions. 

The  use  of  government  maps;  value  of;  illustrative  exercise. 

The  value  uf  good  school  atlases;  the  use  of;  an  illustrative  exer- 
cise. 

Outline  maps  and  graphs. 

"Models;  how  tn  make  paper  pulp  models;  salt  and  flour  models; 
sand   models;   plasticine  models;   chalk  and  pencil  models. 

The  school  that  is  wholly  without  maps  cannot 
secure  the  best  results  in  geography  and  history. 
Teachers  should  acquire  a  better  understanding  of 
maps ;  a  keener  appreciation  of  their  value  and  use 
will  follow.  Then,  too,  with  maps  as  with  other 
necessaries  of  school  equipment,  if  the  teacher  ap- 
preciates and  makes  use  of  the  materials  and  ap- 
paratus at  hand,  he  is  at  the  same  time  making  it 
easier  to  secure  additions. 

Maps  ar?  symbolical  representations  of  geo- 
graphical truth.  They  show  distribution  of  fea- 
tures upon  a  flat  surface.  There  is  great  economy 
in  their  use.  since  the  desired  truth  can  be  imme- 
diately pointed  out  without  any  reference  or  recog- 

235 


236        THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

nition  of  the  other  features  shown.  They  are 
therefore  time  savers  and  some  one  has  termed 
them  "shorthand  records." 

The  study  of  cartography  becomes  a  science  in 
itself,  so  that  only  the  elemental  facts  concerning 
map-projection  is  likely  to  be  mastered  by  teach- 
ers not  specializing  in  geography.  But  all  teach- 
ers need  the  help  of  maps,  and,  like  their  watches, 
should  make  good  use  of  them  even  if  the  tech- 
nique of  map-making  is  not  perfectly  understood. 
For  the  benefit  of  beginners,  especially,  the  essen- 
tials of  a  good  map  may  be  enumerated.  A  good 
map  should — 

1 .  Be  truthful.  That  is,  it  should  first  of  all  be 
recognized  as  the  work  of  a  skilled  cartogra- 
pher. This  insures  a  proper  projection  and 
as  much  accuracy  in  details  and  distribu- 
tion of  features  as  is  possible  when  a  large 
area  is  reduced  to  so  small  a  scale.  It 
should  be  revised  and  up  to  date.  The  ex- 
aggerations should  be  minimized. 

2.  Be  distinct.  Distinctness  insures  easy  in- 
ter] (rotation  or  reading.  By  com] taring  a 
few  maps  of  different  make,  one  will  soon 
discover  great  differences  in  this  respect. 
In  teaching  it  is  necessary  for  the  entire 
class  to  study  a  map  at  once,  and  hence  at 
some  little  distance,  a  thing  quite  impossi- 
ble and  perhaps  injurious  to  the  eyes,  if  the 
ma])  is  lacking  in  clearness.  Poor  systems 
of  lettering  and  coloring,  together  with  the 


MAPS   AND    MODELS  237 

representation  of  too  much  on  a  single  map, 
lead  to  confusion  and  indistinctness.  In 
selecting  maps,  teachers  and  school  officers 
should  keep  the  above  points  in  mind. 
3.  Employ  conventionalized  symbols,  viz., 
those  in  common  use.  The  spelling,  es- 
pecially, should  be  that  approved  by  geo- 
graphical societies. 

CLASSIFICATION   OF  MAPS. 

(a)  Political  Map,  which  shows  on  a  flat  surface 
the  horizontal  forms  and  distribution  of 
features  with  particular  attention  to  arti- 
ficial boundaries. 

(b)  Outline  Map,  which  is  a  political  map  with 
nomenclature  omitted. 

(c)  Relief  Map,  which  shows  on  a  flat  surface 
both  horizontal  and  vertical  irregularities 
of  land  masses.  There  are  three  kinds  in 
common  use,  the  difference  being  in  the 
symbols  employed  in  showing  vertical  va- 
riations. Elevations  are  shown  by  (1)  Con- 
tours (2)  Colors,  (3)  Light  and  Shade. 
Each  plan  has  its  particular  advantages. 

(d)  Model,  which  is  an  actual  miniature  repro- 
duction of  some  land  form.  It  is  very  use- 
ful but  cannot  be  very  correct.  Horizontal 
irregularities  are  much  simplified  through 
great  reduction  in  scale,  and  vertical  irreg- 
ularities greatly  exaggerated  to  make  them 
appeal  to  the  eye — to  be  distinct. 


238        TUE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGEAPHY 
MAP  DRAWING. 

It  would  be  a  platitude  to  expatiate  on  the  value 
of  map  drawing-.  Its  value  is  conceded  by  all. 
The  map  is  a  diagrammatic  or  graphic  way  of  ex- 
pressing ideas. 

But  what  exercises  in  map  drawing  are  most 
valuable  ?  The  suggestions  here  given  are  the  out- 
growth of  years  of  experience  in  teaching  and  ob- 
serving children  of  all  ages.  At  the  outset  the 
mechanical  exercise  of  copying  maps  is  of  the 
least  value.  That  it  impresses  form  and  relative 
location  and  magnitude  is  true,  but  these  ends  can 
be  reached  through  exercises  involving  more 
thought.  The  best  map  exercise  is  one  that  re- 
quires (1)  the  interpretation  of  one  may)  and  (2) 
the  expression  of  the  mental  picture  in  an  entirely 
new  set  of  map  symbols.  This  exercise  is  very 
practical  and  permits  of  much  variation.  To  illus- 
trate: 

(a)  Interpret  a  United  States  Geological  Sur- 
vey (contour)  ma])  and  express  the  mental 
picture  by  the  use  of  light  and  shade.  In 
this  manner  reproduce  the  region  shown  in 
the  Ottawa  sheet,  or  a  portion  of  the  Kaibab 
sheet. 

(b)  Carefully  study  the  surface  of  France. 
Sketch  the  outline  and  color  as  follows: 

1  .  All  surface  having  an  elevation  of  500  feet 
oi-  less,  light  green.     (Use  water  colors.) 

2.  All  surface  having  an  elevation  of  500-1,000 
feet,  light  vellow. 


MAPS    AND    MODELS  239 

3.  All  surface  having  an  elevation  of  1,000- 
2,000  feet,  deep  yellow. 

4.  All  surface  having-  an  elevation  of  2,000- 
5,000  feet,  light  brown. 

5.  All  elevations  above  5,000  feet,  dark  brown. 

(c)  Study  the  text  and  examine  the  political 
map  of  some  region.  Having  gained  a  good 
mental  picture,  express  it  in  contours,  in 
colors  or  in  light  and  shade. 

Map  drawing  in  which  geometrical  figures  or 
'"nets"  are  employed  to  fix  definitely  certain 
points  arc  highly  recommended  by  many  teachers. 
To  the  writer  it  seems  that  the  attention  of  the 
pupil  must  necessarily  be  drawn  from  the  idea  he 
would  express  to  the  machinery  of  expression,  and 
that  the  so-called  ''nets"  simply  add  to  the  formal 
element  of  map  drawing.  Since  the  plan  em- 
phasizes the  use  of  meridians  and  parallels,  "the 
real  ground  work  of  maps,"  it  certainly  would 
tend  to  keep  the  pupil  oriented,  and  so  far  as  the 
practical  value  of  location  is  concerned  would  be 
commendable. 

UNITED  STATES  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  MAPS. 

The  most  scientific  map  is  the  topographic  map 
published  by  the  United  States  Geological  Survey. 
The  atlas  sheets  are  accurate  and  cheap,  and 
should  he  more  generally  used.  Below  is  given  a 
ma])  of  this  character  on  a  much  reduced  scale.  It 
represents  a  portion  of  the  campus  of  the  AVestern 


210 


THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGEAPUY 


Illinois  State  Normal  School  and  was  prepared 
by  a  pupil  as  a  part  of  the  held  work.* 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  teachers  generally 
know  so  little  of  the  educational  value  of  the  topo- 
graphic map.  Ultimately  the  entire  United  States 
will  be  surveyed  and  mapped.  The  national  gov- 
ernment, co-operating  with  various  state  govern- 
ments, is  prosecuting  the  work  as  fast  as  possible. 


Fig.   10. 

The  topographic  map  can  be  used  to  good  ad- 
vantage in  the  eighth,  ninth,  tenth  and  higher 
grades.  Topographic  Folios  1  and  2,  treating  of 
"Physiographic  Types,"  can  be  used  to  excellent 
advantage1  by  any  class  attempting  the  study  of 
physical  geography.f 


*.\"    ill  usirntion    in    this    chapter    was    especially    prepared  :    each    was 
'lected    from    a    large    number    handed    in    as   regular   ciass   exercises. 
■  Apply    to   the    Director   of    V.    S.    <lru]     Survey,    Washington.    I).    C. 


MAPS   AND    MODELS  241 

Each  folio  contains  several  map  sheets  and  brief 
descriptions  of  the  various  types.  The  teacher 
will  add  considerable  to  his  equipment  for  teach- 
ing by  himself  mastering  the  maps.  In  small 
schools,  eighth  grade  pupils  can  use  these  maps  to 
good  advantage,  as  can  also  large  grammar 
schools,  providing  enough  maps  can  be  had  to  sup- 
ply the  class.  Teachers  who  have  interpreted  the 
maps  can  readily  prepare  questions  for  the  pupils. 
I rojiing  that  some  teachers  will  introduce  this 
work  in  their  classes,  suggestive  exercises  are  here 
given  on  two  sheets  which  are  included  in  Folio  1 
— above  mentioned. 

Interested  teachers  will  obtain  added  help  by 
securing  the  pamphlet,  ''The  Use  of  Governmental 
Maps  in  Schools,"  by  Davis,  King  and  Collie,* 
and  "Monograph  60"  (U.  S.  Geological  Survey), 
by  Atwood  and  Salisbury. 

ILLUSTRATIVE   EXERCISES. 

Boothbay  Sheet.  A  Fiord  Coast. 

1.  By  use  of  scale  compute  the  area  shown  in 
this  map  (a)  in  square  miles;  (b)  in  square 
degrees. 

2.  Locate  this  area  on  a  map  of  Xew  England. 
.'!.      Find  the  distance  in  a  straight  line  from 

IVmaqiiid  Point  to  Griffith  Head.    Estimate 
the   actual    length   of   coast    between   these 
points.    Compare  these  distances. 
4.      Does  the  land  rise  gently  or  abruptly  from 

*  Stv   l'.'.Mii  craphy 


242  THE  TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

the   shore?     Examine  contours   at  several 
places. 

5.  How  high  are  the  highest  points  of  Linekin 

Neck  ?    Of  Rutherford  Island  ?    Of  Squirrel 
Island? 

6.  If  the  land  should  sink  20  feet,  what  land- 
form  would  Linekin  Neck  become  ? 

7.  Draw  Fisherman  Island.  Draw  it  as  it 
would  appear  if  the  island  sank  20  feet. 

8.  Why  are  there  so  many  islands  off  the  coast 
in  this  region?  Were  these  islands  ever 
parts  of  the  main  land?  How  could  they 
become  attached  to  the  main  land  ? 

9.  Do  you  think  the  water  in  the  bays  is  deep  ? 
Why  do  you  think  so?  Do  you  think  the 
coast  abounds  in  good  harbors?  Examine 
the  contours. 

10.  Describe  the  land  surface.  Do  you  think  it 
is  good  for  cultivation? 

1 1 .  In  what  direction  do  the  long  axes  of  the 
hills  extend?  Could  this  be  the  result  of 
glaciation? 

12.  Where  are  settlements  thickest?  Why? 
What  do  the  people  in  this  region  do  ? 

13.  What  physiographic  process  is  responsible 
for  the  contour  and  topography  (if  this 
const  I 

14.  Examine  a  good  picture  of  a  fiord  coast. 

lo.      Sketch  a  small  part  of  this  region  in  light 
and  shade. 
You   will   note   that   the   answers  to   the   above 
i|uestions  are  all   obtained  from  the  map  by  ex- 


MAPS    AND    MODELS  243 

animation  or  inference.  This  is  a  typical  coast 
found  in  many  parts  of  the  earth.  A  careful 
study  of  such  a  type  makes  all  similar  coasts  very 
significant. 

Donaldsonville  Sheet.  Flood  Plains. 

1 .  Locate  the  area  on  a  large  map. 

2.  Find  maximum  height  of  land  above  river- 
level.  Where  is  the  highest  land?  Account 
for  proximity  of  contours  to  each  other, 
near  the  river.  Draw  a  profile  of  the  region 
on  the  parallel  30  degrees,  5  minutes. 

3.  The  margin  of  the  swamps  seems  to  follow 

the  direction  of  the  river.     What  does  this 
suggest?    How  were  the  banks  made? 

4.  Xote  direction  of  country  roads.  Why  do 
roads  run  at  right  angles  to  the  river?  Why 
parallel  to  the  river?  What  need  for  rail- 
roads ? 

5.  What  is  a  bayou?  Does  the  definition  seem 
to  apply  to  Bayou  Conway? 

(].     Where  are  the  settlements?    Why? 

7.  Of  what  economic  value  is  this  region.7 
Characterize  the  soils. 

S.  What  do  you  infer  concerning  its  healthfull- 
ness? 

!).  Find  Xita  Crevasse  and  its  alluvial  deposit. 
Do  levees  hinder  natural  building  up  of 
lands.7  How? 
10.  In  time,  what  will  be  true  of  the  region.' 
What  was  the  condition  of  the  region  ages 
past  ? 


244  TEE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGBAPHY 

11.     Write   a   clear  description   of  the  physio- 
graphic processes  here  exemplified. 

ILLUSTRATIVE    EXERCISE. 

Based  Upon  Longman's  New  School  Atlas. 

The  use  of  maps  should  not  be  restricted  tonnere 
location.  Every  school  should  have  a  copy  of 
Longman  's  New  School  Atlas.  So  far  as  possible, 
originate  problems  requiring  map-interpretation 
and  inference.  Such  exercises  necessitate  genuine 
thought-work  and  insure  correct  generalizations. 
The  better  geographies  have  maps  showing  rain- 
fall, vegetation,  distribution  of  products,  density 
of  population,  commercial  maps,  etc.  Suppose  the 
teacher  state  the  problem: 

What  Relationship  exists  between  the  Annual 
Rainfall  and  the  Distribution  of  Forests  in  the 
United  State.-  ? 

In  order  to  reach  a  conclusion  certain  data  must 
be  secured,  and  this  can  be  done  quickly  and  con- 
veniently by  reference  to  the  maps. 

1  .      Find  the  100th  meridian  on  Map  15.    What 

is  the  annual  rainfall  along  this  meridian? 

How  does  rainfall  vary  as  you  go  east?   As 

you  go  west  ?     In  general,  what  part  of  the 

United  States  is  best  watered? 
-.      Name   the  states  and  parts  of  states  that 

have  an  annual  rainfall  of  50  inches  or  over. 

FTow  ninny  such  regions  are  there1? 
•'!.      What  reinon  has  an  annual  rainfall  of  60- 

100  inches? 


MAPS   AND    MODELS  ^45 

4.  What  is  the  annual  rainfall  in  Now  Eng- 
land? In  the  Lake  region?  In  central  Illi- 
nois? 

5.  Name  the  states  and  parts  of  states  (and 
territories)  that  receive  less  than  10  inches 
annual  rainfall. 

6.  Jn  what  states  do  you  find  forests  chiefly 
of  conifers  .'  What  is  the  annual  rainfall  in 
this  region  \ 

7.  In  what  states  do  you  find  forests  contain- 
ing some  tropical  trees?  What  is  the  an- 
nual rainfall  ? 

S.  Where  are  there  forests  chiefly  of  trees  that 
shed  their  leaves  ?  What  is  the  annual  rain- 
fall in  this  region  ? 

9.  Where  are  there  prairies  intermixed  with 
forests?  State  the  annual  rainfall  of  the 
region. 

10.  "What  is  the  rainfall  of  the  steppes  support- 
ing isolated  trees  and  shrubs? 

11.  Whore  is  the  heaviest  rainfall  in  the  United 
States?     Where  are  the  heaviest  forests? 

12.  "Where  is  the  region  of  least  rainfall?  The 
treeless  country?  How  nearly  do  these 
regions  coincide  ? 

13.  What  do  you  infer  concerning  the  relation- 
ship between  rainfall  and  the  development 
of  forests?  Verify  your  inference  by  data 
secured  from  South  America.  Eurasia,  Af- 
rica and  Australia.  What  is  your  final  con- 
clusion ? 

14.  for  your  language  lesson  write  a  coinpo- 


^46  THE   T EACH IX G   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

sition  on  "The  Relation  of  Rainfall  to  the 
Forests  of  United  States."  Additional  sub- 
ject for  composition  :  "AVhy  Are  Mountain 
Slopes  Usually  Forested?" 

OUTLINE  MAPS, 

Teachers  should  make  free  use  of  " outline" 
maps  of  the  various  continents.  Such  maps  can  be 
purchased  reasonably  in  quantities  (address  of 
publishers  elsewhere  given),  or  they  can  be  made 
by  teacher  and  pupils  by  means  of  a  mimeograph, 
simplex,  or  other  duplicator.  Now  let  the  prob- 
lem be  "The  Distribution  of  Wheat  in  the  United 
States."  The  pupil  reviews  his  text,  and  other 
reference  books  at  hand  and  then  shades  rather 
deeply  with  green  water  color  the  areas  of  largest 
production.  Again  referring  to  his  text  to  ascer- 
tain the  facts,  he  shades  lightly  with  green  the 
areas  of  medium  or  light  production. 

In  similar  manner  the  outline  maps  can  be  used 
to  show  the  distribution  of  other  products  and  re- 
sources. Our  best  geographies  now  contain  dis- 
tribution maps  in  limited  numbers;  the  teacher 
should  select  problems  in  such  a  way  that  the  exer- 
cises will  not  deteriorate  into  the  mere  copying  of 
maps.  To  illustrate:  Assume  that  the  text  con- 
tains separate  maps  showing  distribution  of  coal 
ano!  corn  in  United  States.  The  problem  may  be : 
What  part  of  the  Corn  Belt  is  underlaid  with 
r-oal  .' 

On  an  outline  map  draw  a  light  line  entirely 
around   the   corn   belt.     AVith  water   color   shade 


MAPS   AND    MODELS  O-il 

lightly.  Allow  the  map  to  dry  thoroughly.  Now 
with  pen  and  ink  parallel-line  very  neatly  those 
areas  which  abound  with  coal.  The  advantage  of 
this  map  is  that  it  presents  graphically  the  co- 
incident areas  that  produce  both  corn  and  coal. 
The  impression  made  is  stronger  than  when  the 
eye  is  compelled  to  carry  one  graphic  impression 
over  to  the  second  map  for  comparison.  By  se- 
lecting varieties  of  symbols  a  map  may  become 
cumulative,  that  is,  a  number  of  resources,  all  or  in 
part  coincident  in  their  distribution,  may  be  shown 
on  one  map.  Such  a  map  emphasizes  the  great 
wealth  of  certain  areas,  and,  incidentally,  explains 
the  distribution  of  population. 

ILLUSTRATIVE   EXERCISES. 

1  .  Show  on  one  map  the  distribution  of  rice 
and  sugar  in  the  United  States. 

-.  Show  by  dotted  lines  the  commercial  routes 
of  iron  ore  from  Duluth  and  Superior. 

3.  Shade  on  an  outline  ma}>  the  areas  of 
tinted  States  engaged  in  truck-farming. 
Show  how  these  areas  are  related  to  thickly 
populated  areas. 

4.  On  an  outline  map  show  with  different 
colors  of  ink  three  trunk  railroads  that 
reach  Chicago  from  the  east.  Show  two 
lines  that  extend  from  Chicago  to  the  Pa- 
ri lie  ( )cean. 

5.  Shade  with  rather  dark  color  that  part  of 
North  America  that  was  covered  by  the 
Great  t/Jacier. 


248  THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

6.      Color  with  rather  deep  green  those  regions 
of  North  America  where  the  altitude  is  500 
feet  or  less.     Color  with  light  green  the 
areas  that  are  500  feet  to  1,000  feet  in  alti- 
tude.   Color  with  light  yellow  the  areas  that 
are  1.000  feet  to  2,000  feet  high ;  with  deeper 
yellow  areas  2,000  feet  to  5,000  feet  high; 
and  with  deep  brown  all  areas  over  5,000 
feet  in  height. 
Nothing  will  deaden  the  interest  and  reduce  the 
geography   to   mere   memory   work  more    surely 
and  quickly  than  exclusive  daily  study  and  oral 
rehearsal  of  text-hook  statements.    Such  work  re- 
duces the  pupil  to  a  state  of  passivity.    All  state- 
ments look  equally  important  on  the  printed  page. 
The  material  of  a  text  on  geography  is  to  be  read, 
weighed  and  sifted  for  the  ultimate  purpose  of 
reaching  and  applying  the  broad  general  princi- 
ples  of  the   subject.     The   text   should   never   be 
learned  merely  for  the  sake  of  reciting  it  literally. 

STATISTICS. 

Large  numbers  never  bring  clear  ideas.  The 
teaching  of  statistics  is  time  poorly  spent.  Teach 
areas  of  states  approximately.  Illinois,  for  exam- 
ple, may  be  learned  exactly.  With  a  map  of  United 
States  before  the  class,  require  pupils  to  refer  to 
taltles  of  statistics  to  find  area  of  Illinois.  Now 
look  at  the  map.  Find  other  states  about  the  same 
size  as  Illinois.  Name  these  states.  The  pupils 
can  be  led  to  pick  Wisconsin,  Towa,  New  York, 
Alabama,  etc. 


MAPS    AXD    MODELS  249 

These  states  fall  in  the  50,000  square  miles  class, 
differences  of  1,000  to  5,000  square  miles  being 
ignored. 

Estimate  area  of  Colorado.  Compare  closely 
with  Illinois  on  a  United  States  ma}).  Check  by 
referring  to  table  of  statistics.  Now  find  other 
states  nearly  equal  in  size.  Wyoming,  Xew  Mex- 
ico, Utah,  Nevada,  etc.,  will  be  named.  Select  all 
that  are  from  90,000  to  110,000  square  miles,  and 
classify  with  Colorado.  Knowing  the  areas  of 
Massachusetts,  Illinois  and  Colorado,  pupils  in  the 
upper  grades  never  need  to  hesitate  in  approxi- 
mating areas.  The  map  is  a  graphic  representa- 
tion of  comparative  areas.  It  is  always  wise  to 
use  some  convenient  area  as  that  of  Colorado  as  a 
measure  for  foreign  countries. 

In  referring  to  France,  pupils  should  say: 
"France  is  twice  as  large  as  Colorado,  or  200,000 
square  miles  in  area." 

in  comparing  populations,  productions,  wealth, 
exports,  imports,  etc.,  graphic  representations 
should  be  used.     Illustration: 

In  1901  the  production  of  pig-iron  in  the  three 
leading  countries  was  approximately: 

United  States 16,000,000  tons 

Great  Britain   8,000,000  tons 

Germany   8.000,000  tons 

Hence  a  line  -  inches  long  would  represent 
United  States  output,  and  a  line  1  inch  long  would 
represent  each  of  the  others. 


250        TEE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGEAPHY 

Production  of  Pig  Iron  in  1901. 

-^— — — — — ^— — —  United  States 
^— — — — —  Great  Britain 
— — — - — — —  Germany 


By  the  use  of  cross-section  paper  (ordinary  pa- 
per can  be  ruled  into  centimeter  squares)  very 
significant  graphs  can  be  made,  which  will  show 
not  only  productions,  etc.,  for  a  given  year,  but  the 
relative  increase  or  decrease  of  several  countries 
through  a  series  of  years.  For  illustrations  of 
such  graphs  teachers  should  consult  one  of  the 
standard  commercial  geographies. 

Drill  on  pertinent  statistics  can  be  secured  by 
making  problems  for  the  arithmetic  lesson,  which 
involve  the  selected  values.    Illustration: 

1  .  What  per  cent  of  the  world's  output  of  pig- 
iron  is  supplied  by  the  United  States.' 

2.  Germany's  out] tut  of  pig-iron  is  what  per 
cent  of  United  States'?  Of  the  World's? 
etc. 

Outline  maps  are  not  expensive  and  can  be  filled 
in  and  used  to  excellent  advantage  by  schools  des- 
titute of  map  equipment. 

The  "Standard  Atlas"  of  the  last  census  has 
valuable  double  page  maps  showing  distribution  of 
products,  density  of  population,  etc.,  etc.  These 
maps  can  be  removed,  mounted  on  card  board  and 
be  ready  for  instant  use.  The  Atlas  is  valuable 
and  can  be  had  free. 


MAI'S   AND    MODELS  251 


MAP  EXERCISES. 


A  little  study  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  will 
suggest  numerous  problems  which  the  pupils  can 
answer  by  reference  to  maps.  Such  exercises  are 
recommended  strongly  since  it  is  the  conviction  of 
the  writer  that  pupils  make  too  little  use  of  maps 
generally.  The  following  exercises  suggested  by 
Prof.  A.  \Y.  Andrews  will  be  found  helpful:* 

"  From  a  map  without  names  showing  elevation 
by  shade.-  of  color,  such  as  the  Diagram  Hand  Map 
of  the  London  District,  to  find  the  position  of  the 
chief  towns  at  the  gaps  of  the  North  Downs. 

From  a  similar  map  of  France  to  find  the  possi- 
ble lines  of  march  of  Ca>sar. 

From  a  similar  map  of  India  to  show  the  regions 
of  excessive  rainfall. 

From  a  similar  map  of  South  America  to  show 
the  direction  of  the  rain-hearing  winds  in  the  Ama- 
zon valley. 

From  maps  of  the  Atlantic  and  Indian  Oceans 
showing  prevailing  winds  in  January  and  July,  to 
work  out  the  winds  likely  to  reach  the  land  with 
an  excess  or  deficiency  of  moisture,  or  to  show  the 
route  of  ( 'olumbus. 

From  maps  of  Africa  showing  rainfall  in  Janu- 
ary and  July  to  show  the  regions  of  permanent 
tropical  forest,  of  savanna  with  an  area  extended 
or  diminished  according  to  rainfall,  and  of  perma- 
nent desert. 

•Journal   of  Oeography,   March,   1002. 


252  THE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

From  a  series  of  maps  showing  climate  and  ele- 
vation to  find  the  regions  likely  to  produce  rice. 

From  maps  showing  the  density  of  population 
of  Wales  to  find  the  coal  mining  districts. 

From  a  map  of  Australia  showing  rail  and  tele- 
graphs to  show  the  area  of  densest  population. 

From  a  contour  map  of  the  North  Sea  or  the 
Banks  near  Newfoundland,  to  find  the  main  fishing 
centres. 

From  a  map  showing  the  amount  of  Africa  ex- 
plored in  1788,  consisting  of  a  rim  round  the  coast, 
to  work  out  the  special  difficulties  presented  by  the 
configuration  of  the  land. 

But  we  would  go  further;  carefully  selected 
series  of  typical  views  lend  themselves  to  the  prob- 
lem method  quite  as  readily  as  maps.  It  would  be 
easy  to  multiply  instances. 

From  two  views  of  the  northern  and  southern 
slopes  of  the  Alps,  to  find  the  points  of  the  com- 
pass from  a  consideration  of  the  presence  and  ab- 
sence of  snow." 

MODELS. 

The  making  of  models  is  an  excellent  means  of 
securing  better  notions  of  surface  features. 
Printed  descriptions  lose  force  with  children. 
Even  if*  geographies  contain  good  relief  maps,  the 
construction  of  a  model  will  necessitate  a  more 
careful  study  of  the  relief  map,  and  the  mechanical 
work  will  deepen  the  impression.  Better  still,  all 
such  work  makes  the  pupils  doers  rather  than 
passive  receivers. 


MAPS    AXD    MODELS 


253 


PAPIKR    MACIIE    MODELS. 


"Excellent    models    can    he    made    from    papier 
luaclie.     Secure  a  good  bundle  of  old  news] tapers. 


A   Paper   Pulp  Model. 


Have  the  children  tear  them  into  small  bits.  Place 
in  a  jar  or  pail  and  cover  with  water  and  allow  to 


254  TEE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGEAPET 

stand  for  two  or  three  days.  Drain  off  excess 
water.  Then  thoroughly  work  with  a  sharpened 
wood  paddle  until  mixture  becomes  a  thick,  pliable 
mass.  If  thoroughly  worked  it  is  now  ready  for 
modeling.  The  outline  of  the  map  should  previ- 
ously have  been  made.  Paper  pulp  models  will 
keep  well.  Blue  water-colors  may  represent  bodies 
of  water.  Varnish  or  shellac  will  enable  the  model 
to  resist  moisture. 

SALT    AXD    FLOUR    MODELS. 

Good  models  can  be  made  from  a  mixture  of  two 
parts  of  common  salt  and  one  of  flour.  Mix  well 
(dry)  between  thumb  and  lingers.  Add  water  very 
slowly,  mixing  all  of  the  time.  Continue  until  mix- 
ture has  the  consistency  of  wet  sand.  It  is  now 
ready  for  use. 

The  outline  of  the  country  should  previously 
have  been  prepared.  An  easy  way  is  to  trace  the 
outline  from  a  text-book  map,  using  transparent 
paper.  This  can  be  done  quickly.  Xow  lay  this 
copy  on  a  piece  of  cardboard  (pasteboard  boxes 
in  every  home  can  be  had),  and  trace  again  with 
hard  pencil  or  stylus.  This  imprints  the  outline 
on  the  cardboard,  upon  which  the  model  is  to  be 
made.  Apply  the  salt  and  flour  mixture,  spread- 
ing very  thin,  and  covering  completely  over  the 
area  to  be  modeled.  Xow  add  more  of  the  mix- 
ture to  build  plateaus  and  mountains.  A  flexible 
case  knife  is  convenient  to  spread  mixture.  The 
thumb  and  fingers  are  good  tools  for  mountain 
building.     Relief  maps  from  which  to  model  a7-e 


MAPS   AND    MODELS  255 

found  in  all  of  the  better  geographies.  Shiny  card- 
board may  be   brushed  over  with   library  paste 
before  applying  the  mixture.     This   insures  ad- 
hesion. 
Before  children  make  models,  the  teacher  should 


A    Salt   and    Flour    Model. 

discuss     the     surface     with     them.       Mountains, 
plateaus,  and  lowlands  should  be  pointed  out. 

] livers  can  be  scratched  in  with  a  pencil  point 
while  mixture  is  moist.  Do  not  use  too  much  of 
the  mixture.  The  cardboard  will  absorb  the 
moisture  and  become  so  weakened  that  model  may 


256  TEE   TEACHING  OF   GEOGRAPHY 

crack  in  handling.  Light  pine  hoard  may  he  used 
for  the  hase.  Water  bodies  adjacent  to  continent 
may  he  shown  with  blue  water  colors. 

After  the  first  time,  children  can  prepare  models 
at  home.  South  America  is  a  good  continent  with 
which  to  begin.  Keep  the  models  dry.  A  coating 
of  shellac  will  help  preserve  them. 

This  exercise  is  very  practical  and  highly  com- 
mended. 

Observe  the  model  of  North  America  made  from 
the  calt  and  flour  mixture. 

SAND   MODELS. 

There  is  no  excuse  for  not  modeling  land  forms. 
A  modeling  board  2  feet  x  3  feet  or  3  feet  x  4  feet, 
with  a  rim  2  inches  or  3  inches  high,  and  two  or 
three  pails  of  sand,  completes  the  requirements. 
Sand  models  can  be  made  quickly  and,  as  the  mate- 
rial costs  nothing,  larger  models  can  be  made  than 
was  practicable  with  other  material. 

PLASTICINE    MODELS. 

Plasticine  is  a  commercial  modeling  material. 
Circulars  describing  it  and  giving  directions  as  to 
its  use  can  be  had  on  application.*  Plasticine  can 
be  used  ever  and  over  again.  It  can  be  used  in 
geographical,  historical  and  manual  training 
work. 

Procedure:  "Flatten  pieces  of  gray  plasticine 
between  linger  and  thumb,  and  press  upon  the  pa- 


*  For    ruMressi's    of    companies    that    furnish    modeling    materials,   see 
Chapt-r   XXII. 


MAPS    AND    MODELS  251 

per  to  the  shape  of  the  coast  line  or  country  (a 
slight  pencil  outline  may  be  used  if  desired).  To 
make  mountains,  roll  pieces  of  paper  into  a  ball 
and  cover  with  thin  flattened  plasticine;  add  more 
for  elevation  of  headlands,  cliffs,  etc.  Depress  the 
valleys  by  linger,  and  channels  of  rivers  and 
gorges  by  tool.  .  .  .  The  plasticine  has  to  he 
applied  by  pressure,  not  spread  like  butter.  Take 
the  needle  tool  and,  holding  it  like  a  pencil,  draw 
round  the  outline,  cutting  through  to  the  paper, 
strip  the  paper  off  the  back,  and  model  stands 
clear;  place  it  upon  the  clean  surface  of  slate, 
board,  or  tin  tray,  go  again  round  your  contours 
with  tool  and  linger  to  secure  greater  accuracy 
and  detail.'' 

'"The  colored  plasticine  can  be  introduced  at 
this  stage  for  the  natural  characteristics,  such  as 
lakes,  mountains,  etc." 

"Introduce  chips  or  real  stone,  chalk,  coal,  etc., 
imbedded  in  the  plasticine  to  express  the  geologi- 
cal formation  of  the  neighborhood,  and  account 
for  the  character  of  the  beaches  and  river-beds  by 
the  disintegration  of  adjoining  strata.  These  ex- 
ercises give  great  life  and  interest  to  local  map- 
making.  Cut  out  ponds,  lakes,  and  reservoirs,  and 
insert  blue  plasticine,  mirror  or  tin-foil  for  water. 
Chalk,  cotton,  wool  or  silk  can  also  be  pressed  into 
service  to  show  snow  mountains,  water  falls,  or 
volcanoes.  Water  does  not  affect  plasticine;  it  can 
be  poured  over  the  model  in  the  tray  to  show  ac- 
tion of  tides,  fountains  and  rivers." 


258 


THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 


CHALK    AND    PENCIL    MODELS. 

Chalk  and  pencil  models  are  relief  maps.  They 
are  readily  made  with  crayon  on  blackboard,  or 
on  paper  with  soft  pencil.     This  method  of  show- 


A    Pencil    Modi 


inu'  relief  is  otic  of  the  most  practical,  as  the 
pupil's  equipment  is  so  simple.  Children  love  to 
work  with  the  hands  and  very  soon  acquire  the 
ability  to  make  excellent  iiirht  and  shade  maps. 

In   performing  the  work  the  crayon   or  pencil 
is  held   in  an  almost   horizontal   position   between 


MAPS    AND    MODELS  259 

the  thumb  and  forefingers.  When  the  pencil  is 
used  it  should  be  very  soft,  with  long  "lead" 
exposed.  Rub  the  pencil  back  and  forth  on  rough 
paper  until  it  is  somewhat  flattened.  Ordinary 
drawing  paper  is  a  good  surface  upon  which  to 
make  the  pencil  model,  though  scratch  paper  or 
light  brown  wrapping  paper  does  well.  Xo  de- 
tailed directions  for  executing  the  work  can  here 
be  given.  A  few  suggestions  may  help  the  be- 
ginner : 

Avoid  lines  with  point  of  pencil ;  the  strokes 
should  be  with  the  side  of  the  lead. 

Successive  strokes  should  blend. 

Horizontal  strokes  will  represent  level  surfaces; 
oblique  strokes,  sloping  surfaces,  and  ver- 
tical strokes,  vertical  surfaces. 

Successively  higher  altitudes  are  shown  by  rela- 
tively deeper  and  deeper  shadings. 

Mountain  ridges  are  usually  represented  with 
rather  heavy  strokes  on  one  slope  and  light 
strokes  on  the  other  slope. 

The  heiuht  of  mountain  chains  is  represented 
by  the  length  of  the  oblique  strokes.  Rela- 
tively longer  and  shorter  strokes  will  rep- 
resent relatively  higher  and  lower  moun- 
tain ridges. 

Land  at  or  near  sea-level  is  very  lightly  shaded. 

Xote  the  illustrative  pencil  model  of  South 
America. 

'•Chalk    Modeling,"   by    Ida    0.    Iloffron,"    is   a 

*  Soo  r.Uilio-iraphy. 


200  THE   TEACHING   OF  GEOGRAPHY 

most  helpful  volume,  containing  numerous  illus- 
trations and  clear  directions  for  modeling  the 
various  types  of  topography  and  land  forms. 


SUGGESTIONS  AND  QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  a  map?    A  model?    A  relief  map?     An  outline  map? 

2.  How  many  ways  of   showing  relief   on   a   flat    map?     Of  these 

ways  which  is  the  most  practical  for  public  school  pupils? 

3.  What  constitutes  a  good   map  drawing  exercise? 

4.  Why   are   U.   S.   Geological   Survey  maps   of   special   value?    In 

what  phase  of  geography  are  they  most  useful? 

5.  How  can  school  atlases  be  used  to  advantage? 

6.  To    what    extent    can    graphic    representation    be    employed    in 

geography?     By  what  method? 

7.  What  use  can  be  made  of  outline  maps? 

8.  What  advantage  have  models  over  relief  maps?     "What   caution 

is  necessary  in  the  use  of  models? 

9.  What  is  the  educational  value  of  modeling  as  a  school  exercise? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Dryer,  Chas.  R. — "Surveying  and  Mapping,"  Inland  Educator, 
June.   1S98. 

Retlway,  J.  W. — The  Reproduction  of  Geographical  Forms,  D.  C. 
Heath   &   Co. 

Davis,  King  and  Collie — The  Use  of  Government  Maps  in  Schools, 
Henry   Holt  &  Co. 

Holway,  R.  S—  "Modeling  Mt.  Shasta,"  Bui.  Am.  Bu.  of  Geog- 
raphy,  Vol.  I,  Xo.  :;. 

Andrews,  A.  W. — "The  Use  of  Maps  in  the  Teaching  of  Geog 
raphy,"  Jour,  of  Geog..  March,  HMi2. 

Gillan,  S.  Y. —  Tracing  ami  Sketching  Lessons  in  Geography,  S.  Y. 
Gillan  ,V  Co. 

Heffron,   Ida  {'.—Chalk  Modeling,  Educational  Publishing  Co. 

G le.  .1.  I'aul-  -"  I'rte  Hand  Map  Work."  Bui.  Am.  Bu.  of  Geog- 
raphy, Vol.  I. 


CHAPTER1  XXI. 

Suggestions   ox  the   Study  of   Soils. 
topics  to  be  coxs1deked. 

The  study  of  soils;  the  origin  of  soils;  character  of  soils  de- 
pendent largely  on  aqueous  beil-rock;  law  of  deposition; 
the  case   of   the  Blue  Grass  region. 

Transported  soils;  alluvial,  glacial  drift,  loess;  short  descrip- 
tions of  each;  the  Mississippi  delta;  the  prairie  plains;  the 
loess  of  lower  Mississippi  valley. 

Importance  of  maintaining  the  productive  capacity  of  soils;  ele- 
ments  of  soil   fertility;   the  new  interest  in  agriculture. 

The  teacher  of  elementary  geography  should 
have  some  knowledge  of  soils.  Any  technical 
study  of  soils  belongs,  of  course,  to  agriculture; 
but  there  are  considerations  wholly  within  the 
province  of  geography,  a  knowledge  of  which  is 
quite  essential  to  one  who  essays  to  teach  gram- 
mar school  geography. 

Many  text  hooks  of  geography  make  formal 
statements  concerning  the  soils  of  a  state  or 
region,  hut  the  necessity  for  brevity  forbids  any 
explanation  of  why  the  soils  of  said  state  or  region 
are  good  or  poor.  It  rests  with  the  teacher  to 
supplement  and  make  significant  the  brief  denota- 
tive statements  of  the  text. 

Teachers  should  know  that  soil  is  rock  waste 
mixed   with   more  or   less  organic  matter.     This 

261 


2G2        THE   TEACHING   OF   GEOGRAPHY 

being  true,  no  adequate  understanding  of  soils  is 
possible  without  some  consideration  of  the  rocks 
whose  decomposition  yields  the  soils.  By  far  the 
larger  portion  of  soils  is  the  product  of  sedimen- 
tary rocks.  Jf,  perchance,  we  know  the  condi- 
tions under  which  the  rocks  were  deposited,  we 
shall  have  a  key  to  the  character  of  the  soils  which 
the  rocks  will  yield. 

Sedimentary  rocks  are  aqueous  rocks ;  that  is, 
they  were  formed  from  materials  deposited  in  a 
body  of  water.  But  a  body  of  water,  be  it  lake  or 
sea,  will  be  either  shallow  or  deep;  or,  the  same 
body  of  water  may  be  shallow  in  one  part  and  deep 
in  another.  In  general,  water  is  shallow  near 
shore  lines  and  deep  some  distance  out.  The  waste 
of  the  adjacent  lands  is  carried  by  streams  into 
the  water  body.  Xow  it  is  evident  that  heavy 
materials  will  settle  quickly  to  the  sea  bottom  and 
therefore  such  deposition  will  be  along  the  shores. 
As  liner  waste  of  the  lands  settle  more  slowly  sea- 
currents  carry  such  materials  farther  out  from 
shore  before  deposition  occurs.  When  an  old  sea- 
bed is  lifted  and  drained  we  should  therefore  ex- 
pect to  find  the  line  grained  rocks  at  some  distance 
from  the  old  shores,  and  the  coarse  textured  rocks 
near  them. 

Jt  appears  therefore  that  there  is  a  sorting  of 
the  sediments,  the  order  of  deposition  beginning 
with  the  coarsest  and  ending  with  the  finest.  These 
aqueous  deposits  will  in  time  become  rock  through 
tlie  agencies  of  pressure  and  cementation.  But 
should  the  sea-bed  be  lifted,  the  rocks  in  time  will 


THE    STUDY    OF    SOILS  263 

decompose  and  the  resulting  soils  will  be  charac- 
terized by  .them.  We  should  hardly  expect  good 
soils  from  the  rocks  and  gravels  which  come  from 
the  conglomerate  rocks  along  the  shore.  Neither 
would  the  coarse  sandstone  farther  out  yield  rich 
soils,  for  sand  crystals  are  not  easily  dissolved 
and  the  rootlets  of  plants  cannot  feed  upon  undis- 
solved materials.  The  soils  resulting  from  the 
liner  sandstone  will  be  somewhat  better.  The 
mud  deposits  will,  of  course,  yield  line  soils;  and 
since  muds  contain  much  organic  material,  these 
sods  will  be  rich. 

Dee])  sea  ooze  hardens  into  limestone.  Soils 
resulting  from  the  decomposition  of  deep-water 
deposits  are  rich,  for  the  ooze  contains  the  cal- 
careous remains  of  marine  life  forms,  diatoms, 
globigerina,  etc.,  which  are  rich  in  phosphates  and 
lime.  The  disintegration  of  such  solidified  de- 
posits produces  line  rich  soils.  In  general  it  may 
be  said  that 

(a)  Shallow  sea-deposits  yield  sandy  and  grav- 

elly soils  of  low  fertility. 

(b)  Deep-sea  deposits  yield  line  soils  rich  in  or- 

ganic   substances   and   therefore   of   high 

fertility. 
The  application  of  the  law  of  aqueous  deposits 
explains  the  character  of  soils  in  many  regions. 
The  soils  of  the  Blue  (irass  region  of  Kentucky, 
for  instance,  are  very  rich.  The  teacher  should 
be  able  to  explain  such  an  empirical  statement. 
There  is  a  chain  of  associations  which  carries  one 
in  thought    from   the  fields  of  hemp,  tobacco  and 


26±  THE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

blue  grass,  to  the  Paleozoic  sea  that  once  occupied 
the  Mississippi  valley;  to  its  marine  life  with 
microscopic  limy  shells ;  to  the  deep-sea  ooze 
somewhat  west  of  the  old  Appalachian  shore ;  to 
the  beds  of  limestone  which  the  ooze  helped  to 
form;  to  the  diastrophic  uplift  which  caused  the 
sea  water  to  retreat  southward ;  and  finally  to  the 
rock-weathering  which  converted  the  limestone 
into  rich  soil.  This  fertile  Blue  Grass  region 
enticed  Finley  and  Boone  through  Cumberland 
Gap  into  a  land  of  "wonderful  fertility  and 
beauty.  In  its  rivers,  its  plains,  its  forests,  its 
gentle  eminences,  its  bright  skies  and  salubrious 
clime,  it  presented  then,  as  now,  as  attractive  a 
residence  for  man  as  this  globe  can  furnish."* 
And  all  of  these  things  are  associated,  in  the  mind 
of  one  who  has  made  an  intelligent  study  of  the 
region  in  question. 

What  has  been  said  refers  to  local  soils.  There 
are,  however,  large  regions  of  transported  soils 
and  these  will  need  to  be  understood  by  the 
teacher.  Transported  soils  include  alluvial,  gla- 
cial drift  and  loess  soils. 

I.       ALLUVIAL   SOILS. 

Alluvial  soils  are  fine  and  of  high  fertility. 
They  abound  in  river  valleys  and  delta  forma- 
tions. The  Mississippi  delta  affords  a  good  illus- 
tration. The  great  wedge-shaped  area  with  its 
base  southward  and  its  apex  extending  northward 

*  Abbott's  "l  mnii'l   P.oonc." 


THE    STUDY    OF    SOILS  261 

CO  Illinois,  constitutes  the  Mississippi  delta.  The 
delta  proper  is  three  hundred  miles  long  and  has 
an  area  of  twelve  thousand  three  hundred  square 
miles.  Its  soils  are  composed  of  deep,  rich  allu- 
vium brought  down  by  the  Mississippi  river  and 
its  great  tributaries.  Along  the  Mississippi,  on 
either  side,  southward  from  the  Ohio,  terrestrial 
deposits  are  found,  while  farther  back  the  fossils 
are  marine  in  character.  From  borings  exposing 
these  deposits  the  extent  of  the  delta  has  been 
determined.  Much  of  the  lower  Mississippi  is 
aggrading,  and  its  overflows  have  deposited  much 
material  just  outside  of  the  banks,  causing  the 
land  to  slope  gently  away  from  the  river.  A  cross- 
section  of  the  river  at  Donaldsonville,  Louisiana, 
illustrates  this  well.*  "When  floods  occur  suf- 
ficiently high  to  overflow,  great  sheets  of  shallow 
water  are  imprisoned  back  of  these  natural  levees, 
where  they  contribute  their  loads  of  waste  to  the 
building  up  of  alluvial  plains.  A  large  part  of 
Louisiana  and  Arkansas,  and  part  of  Mississippi, 
are  deeply  covered  with  alluvial  deposits.  From 
Cairo,  Illinois,  the  river  swings  back  and  forth  in 
a  Hood  plain  which  extends  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
miles  on  either  side  of  its  channels.  Oxbow  lakes 
are  common,  and  terraces  of  alluvium  and  bluffs 
of  loess  often  overlook  the  valley. 


II.       GLACIAL  DRIFT   SOILS. 


Xo  one  can  teach  the  geography  of  our  northern 
continents  well  unless  he  knows  something  of  the 


Donaldsonville  Sheet,  U.   S.  Geol.   Survey. 


2GG  TJIE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

fundamental  facts  of  glaciation.  The  topography 
and  soils  of  northern  United  States  have  received 
their  character  largely  through  the  work  of  gla- 
ciers. As  many  good  books  have  been  written  on 
glaciers  and  glaciation  interesting  science  sketches 
await  the  perusal  of  teacher  and  pupil.  Not  alone 
have  surfaces  and  soils  been  determined  by  glaci- 
ation ;  but  commercial  highways,  industries  and 
population  have  responded  in  turn  to  surface  and 
soil  condition. 

Long,  long  after  the  great  changes  that  made 
our  country  first  land,  then  sea,  came  the  great 
glacier  from  the  north,  grinding  the  shales  and 
rocks  to  powder,  scattering  and  spreading  the 
rock-flour  smoothly  over  the  undisturbed  rocks, 
leveling  the  hills,  and  ''wiping  out  rivers  as  easily 
as  a  schoolboy  wipes  out  chalk  marks."  This 
great  glacier  was  hundreds — perhaps  thousands — 
of  feet  in  thickness,  and  it  pushed  and  dragged 
the  fine  muds,  sands,  and  clays,  rich  in  lime  and 
phosphorus,  from  the  north  and  finally  spread 
them  evenly  over  our  upper  Mississippi  valley, 
forming  soils  so  productive  that  they  have  only 
"to  be  tickled  with  the  plough  to  bring  forth  a 
harvest."'  We  call  them  glacial  drift  soils,  and 
every  schoolboy  should  realize  how  much  we  owe 
the  glacier  for  making  and  bringing  in  our  soils. 
Indeed  the  finest  fields  of  corn  often  feed  on  limy 
foods  scraped  from  the  Niagara  limestone  or  Cin- 
cinnati shales  of  northern  Illinois  and  southern 
Wisconsin,  and  laid  down  in  the  corn  belt  of  the 
prairie  plains.     Who  is  not  proud  of  this  prairie 


THE    STUDY    OF    SOILS  267 

country  with  its  great  fields  of  corn,  oats  and 
grass;  with  its  orchards  and  gardens;  and  with  its 
luxuriant  pastures  where  graze  white-faced  Here- 
fords  and  dappled  Percherons  ?  This  prairie 
country  is  level.  There  are  no  hills,  just  here  and 
there  miniature  valleys  and  ravines,  carved  by 
waters  of  frequent  storms.  An  occasional  boulder 
lies  sleeping  by  the  roadside,  but  to  him  who  is 
in  tune  with  nature  it  whispers  the  interesting 
story  of  the  Great  Ice  Age.  Xo  mountains  and 
scarce  a  lake  or  waterfall  break  the  monotony  of 
its  level  expanse;  but  there  is  a  rare  beauty  in  the 
country  road  lined  with  elms  and  maples,  in  the 
cultivated  fields  of  dark  rich  mold,  and  in  the 
peaceful  homes  of  plenty  that  dot  a  landscape 
whose  surface  and  soils  are  products  of  glaciation. 

III.       LOESS    SOILS. 

The  loess  and  loam  in  the  Mississippi  valley  are 
flood-plain  deposits  of  glacial  debris.  The  melting 
of  the  Great  Glacier,  the  southern  margin  of 
which  corresponded  roughly  to  the  courses  of  the 
Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers,  furnished  floods 
which  carried  the  liner  morainic  materials  south- 
ward into  Mississippi  and  Louisiana.  The  loess 
is  of  great  thickness,  which  shows  that  it  could 
not  be  a  disintegration  of  the  underlying  recks. 
Its  vertical  extent  sometimes  reaches  one  thou- 
sand feet.  It  does  not  show  stratification,  a  fact 
which  distinguishes  it  from  the  underlying  rocks 
on   which   it   lies.     The    absence   of   lime    distin- 


268  TIIE   TEACHING  OF   GEOGRAPHY 

guislies   it   from   the   bluff   formation   along   the 
Mississippi  river. 

The  loess  is  often  deeper  as  rivers  are  ap- 
proached, a  fact  which  shows  that  such  channels 
were  preexistent.  Increased  thickness  is  observed 
near  the  Mississippi,  the  Black  and  the  Tombigbee 
rivers.  The  erosion  of  these  loess  surfaces  now 
assists  in  the  transfiguration  of  the  country. 

Loess  and  loam  are  continuous  in  Missis- 
sippi,  though  the  latter  is  absent  in  the  bluffs. 
They  pass  each  other  by  insensible  gradations.* 
The  so-called  loess-loam  was  deposited  while  the 
region  was  at  sea-level  and  its  position  shows  that 
no  submergence  has  since  occurred.  As  the  great 
gulf  into  which  the  fine  materials  were  deposited 
was  not  deep,  the  heavily  loaded  streams  carried 
the  line  sediments  far  outward.  The  later  reces- 
sion of  water  permitted  winds  to  modify  the  po- 
sition of  the  materials,  hence  both  wind  and  water 
as  agencies  have  assisted  in  their  formations. 
The  yellow  loam  is  unstratified  as  a  result  of  slug- 
gish, overloaded  streams,  or  of  consequent  modifi- 
cations. Xo  old  shore  lines  are  visible  in  these 
formations.  The  yellow  loam  is  the  latest  deposit 
in  northern  Mississippi,  extending  fifty  miles  east 
of  the  Yazoo  bluffs,  and  is  described  by  TTilgard 
as  the  non-calcareous  division  of  the  loess.  The 
loess  proper  is  a  fine  calcareous  clay,  containing 
a  great  variety  of  land  and  fresh-water  shells. 

Loess  soils  the  world  over  are  verv  rich.     The 


*  Tli'>     irooln^ist     rharnctorizps     thorn     as     "hnmotaxial"     ami     "syn- 
hronoiiB." 


THE    STUDY    OF   SOILS  269 

loess  deposits  of  eastern  China  are  of  great  thick- 
ness and  of  rare  fertility.  Among  the  regions  of 
the  United  States  covered  with  loess,  either  wind- 
blown dust  deposits  or  water-sorted  glacial  mate- 
rials, are  Nebraska,  Kansas,  and  Oklahoma.  The 
modified  drift  (the  siftings  of  glacial  drift  re- 
deposited  from  water)  is  found  in  considerable 
quantities  along  the  Mississippi  river,  in  parts  of 
Iowa,  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  and  elsewhere. 

Lava  soils  are  the  result  of  the  decomposition 
of  trap  rock.  Great  fissures  have  been  formed  in 
the  newer  portion  of  our  country,  and  from  them 
much  molten  rock  has  been  ejected;  this  volcanic 
material  has  flowed  into  the  valleys  and  over  the 
plains,  sometimes  for  considerable  distances.  On 
cooling  it  solidified;  but  the  resulting  rock  in  time 
yielded  to  the  processes  of  weathering  and  soils 
were  formed  from  it.  These  soils  are  fertile,  but 
lack  of  moisture  often  renders  them  unproductive. 

The  study  of  the  origin  of  soils  is  interesting 
and  profitable  and  the  methods  of  maintaining 
their  productive  capacity  is  of  immediate  impor- 
tance. Simple  facts  and  principles,  relating  to 
the  home  neighborhood,  are  typical  and  may  be 
taught  in  connection  with  geography. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  classify  the  soils  and  to 
associate  the  various  types  with  physiographic 
regions.    Their  origin  may  then  be  recalled. 

The  general  types  of  soil  in  the  following  re- 
gions may  prove  suggestive: 

Atlantic  Coastal  Plains,  sandy  soils. 


o;o        THE   TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

Gulf  Coastal  Plains,  sandy,  alluvial  and  loess 
soils. 

Lake  Plains,  lacustral *  soils. 

Prairie  Plains,  drift  soils. 

Northern  Appalachian  valleys,  limestone  soils. 

Columbia  Plateau,  lava  soils. 

Basin  Region,  lacustral  soils. 

Etc 

There  are  seven  elements  in  the  soils  that  are 
necessary  to  the  growth  of  plants.  These  are: 
calcium,  iron,  magnesium,  sulphur,  phosphorus, 
potassium  and  nitrogen.  Of  these,  the  soils  con- 
tain in  large  amounts,  all  except  the  last  three. 

Nitrogen  is  a  gas  and  constitutes  about  four- 
fifths  of  the  atmosphere.  Teachers  should  make 
themselves  familiar  with  the  interesting  science 
story  that  explains  how  bacteria  live  upon  the 
roots  of  leguminous  plants  and  how  they  gather 
nitrogen  from  the  air  and  store  it  up  as  nitrates 
in  the  nodules  of  rootlets.  If  clover  be  pulled  up 
by  the  roots  and  carefully  washed,  these  nodules, 
if  present,  can  be  easily  seen.  Agricultural  col- 
leges furnish  free  bulletins  relating  to  this  prac- 
tical department  of  science.  Now  that  so  much 
attention  is  given  to  agriculture  such  knowledge 
should  be  familiar  to  all  elementary  teachers. 

Phosphorus  is  of  great  value  to  soils.  It  is 
removed  through  the  sale  of  nearly  all  products  of 
the  farm.  Much  phosphorus  is  needed  to  produce 
the  seeds  of  grains.  It  also  goes  into  the  bone 
structure  of  animals,  hence  any  farm  product  is 

*  Fine   deposits   of  nnHent   lakes. 


THE    STUDY    OF    SOILS  271 

likely  to  make  a  drain  upon  this  important  ele- 
ment of  the  soil.  Soils  deficient  in  phosphorus 
can  be  replenished  through  the  application  of  rock- 
phosphate  Hour  or  bone  meal.  Beds  of  phosphate 
rock  are  found  in  Tennessee  and  Florida.  These 
rock  deposits  are  of  high  commercial  value,  the 
rock  being  quarried,  ground  and  shipped  even  to 
foreign  countries. 

If  soils  are  lacking  in  potassium  it,  too,  should 
be  added.  Crude  potash  mineral  can  be  pur- 
chased on  the  market  under  the  name  "kainit." 
Teachers  would  do  well  to  secure  bulletins  from 
agricultural  colleges,  and  to  study  selected  por- 
tions of  them  with  the  children.  Through  the 
children  the  parents  may  become  interested  and, 
in  this  maimer,  the  school  will  perform  its  highest 
service. 

ILLUSTRATIVE   EXERCISES. 

Through  outdoor  study  pupils  can  learn, 

(a)  To  distinguish  the  various  types  of  soil  as 

clay,  loam,  sand,  loess,  etc. 

(b)  The  depth  of  loam  by  actual  measurement. 

(c)  The  relative  fertility  of  soils  by  observing 

growing  crops. 

(d)  The   porosity   of   soils    by   observing   their 

ability  to  hold  water  upon  their  surfaces. 

(e)  The  comparative  depth  of  soils  on  hillsides 

and  level  tracts. 

(f)  The  rapidity  of  erosion  and  the  laws  that 

govern  the  same. 

(g)  The  soils  that  best  maintain  moisture. 


272  THE   TEACHING  OF   GEOGRAPHY 

(li)     The  soils  that  are  poor  in  nitrogen  from  the 

color  of  growing  plants, 
(i)     The  influence  of  different  kinds  of  fertilizers 

through  the  observation  of  growing  crops, 
(j)     The  bad  effects  of  cultivating  soils  when  too 

wet. 
(k)     The  spread  of  roots  in  different  crops,  and 

the  kind  of  cultivation  required. 
(1)     The  adaptation  of  crops  to  soils,  etc. 

Teachers  will  find  Hunt's  How  to  Choose  a 
Farm  helpful  as  a  reference  in  the  study  of  soils 
in  any  part  of  the  United  States. 

"With  the  ever  increasing  demands  of  the  teacher 
he  should  still  be  optimistic.  A  little  accom- 
plished may  be  of  great  value,  and  an  honest 
endeavor  will  surelv  bring  its  reward. 


SUGGESTIONS    AM)   QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  soil?     How  is  soil  formed? 

2.  What    arc   aqueous   rocks?  How   are   they  formed?      Name  the 

various  classes. 

3.  Why   are   the   soils   that    result    from    the   weathering   of   lime- 

stone   rich?      Explain    fully.      Illustrate    by    reference    to    the 
Blue   Grass  region. 

4.  Why  arc  sandy   soils  less  fertile  than  limestone  soils? 

~>.   What     is    loess?       What     do     you     understand     by     "modified 
drift  ?" 

6.  Tell    the    story    of    the    Great    Glacier.      Describe    the    soils    of 

the   I'rairie   Plains. 

7.  Discuss    the    formation   (if   lava    soils. 

8.  What    elements    of    the    soil    are    most    likely    to    be    exhausted! 
J.    How  can   nitrogen  be  restored   to  the  soil? 

10.  How   can    phosphorous   be   replaced? 

11.  Characterize   the   soils   of   the   different   regions  of   the   United 

States. 


THE    STUDY    OF    SOILS  273 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Brooks,    W.    P. — Agriculture,  Vol.   I,   Soils:    Formation,  Physical 

ami    Chemical    Characteristics    and    Methods    of    Improvement, 

The   King  Richards  <  'o. 
Bailey.    L.    II. — Principles   of   Agriculture,    Chaps.    I    to    VI.,    The 

Macmillan   Co. 
Bennet,    I.    D. —  The  Flower  Garden,  Chap.   II,   McClure,   Phillips 

&  Co. 
Fairbanks,    II.    W. — Practical   Physiography,  pp.    11G,    125,   Allyn 

&   Bacon. 
Hilgard,  K.  \V.— Soils,  The  Macmillan  Co. 
Hilgard.    E.    W. — "  The   Relation   of   Soils   to    Climate,"    Bulletin 

Xo.  3,   l\   S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Weather  Bureau. 
Hopkins.   Cyril  G. — Bulletin  No.  67,  "How  to  Maintain  the  Pro- 
ductive   Capacity    of    Soils.''      Illinois    Experiment    Station, 

Urban  a,   Illinois. 
Hunt,  Tin  s.  F. — IIoic  to  Choose  a  Farm,  The  Macmillan  Co. 
King,  F.   U.—  Th,    Soils,  The  Macmillan  Co. 
King.  F.  II. — '■The  Principles  and  Conditions  of  the  Movement  of 

Ground    Water,"    U.    S.    Geol.    Survey,    Nineteenth    Annual 

Report.  Ft.  2. 
Merrill,  A.  P.— Socks,  Sock  Weathering  and  Soils,  The  Macmillan 

<   o. 
Snyder.  II. — Soils  and  Fertilizers,  The  Macmillan  Co. 
Stover — Agriculture    in    Some   of   Its    Stlations    With    Chemistry, 

Chas.   Seribner  s  Sons. 
Warington,  R. —  Physical  Properties  of  Soils,  Oxford  Press,  Oxford, 

England. 
Whitney — ''Sonic  Physical  Properties  of  Soils  in  Their  Relations 

to    Crop    Production,"    U.    S.    Dept.    of   Agriculture,    Weather 

Bureau.  Bulletin   No.   4. 
Reports    and    Bulletins    of    the    Bureau    of    Soils.    U.    S.    Dept.    of 

Agriculture,  especially   Bulletins  4.  10,  15.  17.  lfl  and  22  an  1 

Reports    on    the    Field    Operations    of    the    Bureau    of    Soils, 

beginning  with  year    1S99. 


CHAPTER   XXII. 

Suggestions  Relative  to   Placing   Emphasis  in 
Teaching  Geography. 

topics  to  be  considered. 

Pronunciation  of  geographical  names.  Drill  on  spelling  of  names. 
The  significance  of  geographical  names.    Illustrations. 

Definitions.  Some  statements  should  bo  definite  and  should  be 
learned.     Latitude  and  longitude  as  illustrations. 

Facts  of  location  and  direction  should  receive  some  drill.  Illus- 
trations.    Ideational  facts  of  little  value;   of  much  value. 

Statements  of  principles  and  laws  should  be  accurate.  Not  many 
should  be  taught. 

The  value  of  some  facts  has  been  overestimated.     Examples. 

Summaries   to  illustrate  what  pupils  should   know. 

Relational  or  rational  geography  needs  little  drill. 

In  order  to  secure  satisfactory  results  from  the 
study  of  any  subject,  definite  aims  must  be  in  the 
mind  of  the  teacher.  So  far  as  geography  is  con- 
cerned, no  educator  or  group  of  educators  lias,  as 
yet,  clearly  set  forth  definite  standards  of  attain- 
ment, generally  accepted  by  the  elementary 
school.  In  a  way,  courses  of  study  set  up  such 
standards,  but  usually  they  are  so  comprehensive 
and  inclusive  that,  so  far  as  pointing  out  the  abso- 
lutely essential  is  concerned,  they  are  of  little 
worth.  To  take  seriously  everything  found  in  the 
ordinary  course  of  study,  means  no  emphasis  of 
essentials.  It  is  a  case  where  "too  many  intensives 
fail  to  intensify." 

?;i 


EMPHASIS  IN  TEACHING  275 

Still  there  is  a  general  feeling  among  educators 
that  the  results  of  geographical  teaching  are  not 
commensurate  with  the  time  and  effort  expended. 
In  the  light  of  this  fact,  it  would  seem  that  indefi- 
nitcncss  of  aim  and  method  is  a  vulnerable  point  of 
attack.  Geography  is  essentially  a  content  study — 
a  fact  that  complicates  the  problem.  h\  the  more 
formal  subjects  there  is  an  element  of  definiteness 
that  springs  from  their  very  nature.  The  ques- 
tion of  organization  and  ends  concerns  the  teacher 
of  foreign  language  but  little.  In  general,  geog- 
raphy as  a  school  subject  is  informational,  explan- 
atory^ significant,  relational.  Desired  results,  how- 
ever, fall  into  two  categories:  (1)  acquisitions 
requiring  concise  expression  to  be  valuable,  and 
('!)  acquisitions  of  connotative  or  significant  char- 
acter, and  not  requiring  equal  exactness  in  expres- 
sion. .VII  ideas  of  whatever  kind  should  be  clear 
and  definite:  but  the  truths  in  the  first  category 
should  be  clearly  and  concisely  stated,  while  those 
in  the  second  category  need  not  be  reduced  to 
equal  accuracy  of  form  to  be  valuable. 

i. 

Tn  tin1  first  category  belong  all  statements  of 
fact  or  principle  that  are  directly  useful  in  deter- 
mining empirical  results  or  in  reaching  logical 
conclusions.  Definiteness  of  thought  and  state- 
ment should  attend — - 

a.     Pronunciation  and  spelling  of  geograph- 
ical names. 


276  TEE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

b.     Definitions,  as  in  mathematical  geography, 
e.     General  directions  and  locations. 

d.  Statements  of  physiographic  and  economic 

principles,  facts,  and  laws. 

e.  Statistical  units  to  serve  as  keys. 

"While  it  is  not  to  be  inferred  that  large  numbers 
of  geographical  names  are  to  be  memorized,  it  is 
very  desirable  that  accuracy  in  spelling  and  pro- 
nunciation of  important  names  be  secured.  Alto- 
gether too  much  careless  work  is  permitted  in  this 
regard.  Accuracy  is  not  urged  as  an  end  in  itself, 
but  for  its  usefulness  and  value  generally.  Many 
geographical  names  have  historical  significance, 
and  whatever  of  mastery  is  gained  in  geographical 
drill  will  function  immediately  in  history,  litera- 
ture, etc. 

Drill  should  be  given  on  those  names  only  that 
have  become  "settled"  and  are  in  common  usage. 
Try  pronouncing  the  names  of  the  states  of  the 
Union.  Look  up  the  correct  pronunciation  of  any 
about  which  you  are  in  doubt.  ITow  many  pro- 
nunciations of  "Illinois."  "Arkansas,"  and  "Mis- 
souri,''  can  be  heard  in  our  school-rooms!  Ts  it 
not  worth  while  to  have  correct  pronunciation  be- 
come a  habit  early  in  school  life!  The  stirring 
sunn'.  "Xot  without  thy  wondrous  story,  Illinois, 
Illinois. "  will  be  more  beautiful  if  the  name  is 
pronounced  IU-i-no'f ';  and  the  song  itself  may  offer 
good  opportunity  for  drill.* 


*  See  Tntrrnaiinnal  Oconrapliy,  Mill,  p.  33. 


EMPHASIS  IN  TEACHING  277 

Test  yourself  and  your  pupils  on  the  pronuncia- 
tion of: 

Alabama  Spokane 

Louisiana  Seattle 

Colorado  New  Orleans 

Hawaii  Sierra  Nevada 

Missouri  Vienna 

Asia  Los  Angeles 

Persia  Nagasaki 

Roumania  equator,  etc. 

If  the  teacher  is  alert,  no  great  amount  of  time 
need  be  taken  to  have  a  reasonable  number  of 
important  geographical  names  well  fixed  as  to 
spoiling  and  pronunciation.  Short,  lively  drills  are 
usually  enjoyed  by  pupils,  and  they  should  be 
given  frequently.  Li  rural  schools  the  exercise 
may  be  general,  as  it  may  also  in  graded  schools 
where  two  or  more  classes  occupy  one  room. 
Equal  attention  should  be  given  to  the  spelling 
of  selected  names.    Try  these  : 

Delaware  Gibraltar 

Philip]  line  Alleghany 

Cincinnati  Mediterranean 

Manila  Arctic,  etc. 

Tn  this  connection,  also,  the  meaning  of  geo- 
graphical names  should  receive  some  attention. 
As  there  is  really  no  limit  of  what  could  be  accom- 


278  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGEAPHY 

plished  in  this  direction,  it  is  wise  to  select  a  few 
of  special  significance.     Illustration: 

Spanish — 

San  Salvador — Holy  Savior. 
Rio  Negro — Black  River. 
Buena  Vista — Good  View. 

German — 

Schwarzwald — Black  Forest. 

Konigsberg — King's  Hill. 

Rotterdam — Dam  (or  dike)  of  Rotter  River. 

English — 

Gloucester — Bright  fortress. 
Edinburgh — Edwin 's  town. 
Norwich — Xorthern  town. 
Suffolk— South  folk. 

French — ■ 

Eau  Claire — Clear  water- 
La  Havre— The  Harbor. 
Detroit— The  Strait. 

Swedish — ■ 

Bergen — Mountains. 
Stockholm — City  on  stakes. 
Karls-Krona — diaries'  (  Yown. 

Indian  — 

Minneapolis — City  of  Minnehaha. 
Pueblo— Village.  ' 
Wisconsin  —  Hushing  channel. 


EMPHASIS  IN  TEACHING  279 

Asiatic— 

liindoostan— District  of  the  Indus. 
Yang-tse — Son  of  the  Sea. 
Fusiyama — Great  mountain. 
.Mesopotamia — Middle  of  the  rivers. 

By  constant  reference  to  maps,  some  cardinal 
points  may  be  well  lixed  in  the  mind  through  this 
drill.  And  frequently  helpful  associations  with 
history  can  be  effected  through  the  significance  of 
names.  In  the  study  of  Washington  and  Oregon, 
for  example,  the  local  names  are  full  of  historical 
suggestion.  Vancouver  Island  named  for  the 
English  explorer;  Puget  Sound  for  Peter  Puget, 
who  accompanied  Vancouver;  Columbia  River 
after  Captain  Gray's  ship;  Astoria  after  John 
Jacob  Astor,  who  established  a  fur-trading  sta- 
tion there;  Cape  Disappointment,  because  the 
Spanish  explorer  Meares  was  outstripped  by  Cap- 
tain Gray  in  rounding  the  bar  to  enter  the  Colum- 
bia River;  Gray's  Harbor  after  Captain  Gray; 
St  rail  of  Juan  de  Fuca  after  the  Greek  navigator 
sailing  in  Spanish  service  under  the  sobriquet, 
".I nan  de  Fuca."  etc.* 

Definitions,  to  be  of  the  highest  value,  must  be 
very  accurate  and  concise.  However,  definitions 
should  not  be  taught  dogmatically,  but  should  be 
developed  inductively.  The  idea  or  conception  is 
always  of  lirst  consideration.  Neither  are  many 
definitions  essentia]  or  desirable.     But  there  are 

*  Soc  '  *  Orvpon    — Am.  Commnmvoultli  Ser. — Barrows,  p.  -13. 


2S0  THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

some  that  are  so  fundamental  that  to  learn  them, 
well  is  a  matter  of  convenience  and  economy. 
Definitions  of  latitude  and  longitude  are  of  this 
kind.  A  large  percentage  of  pupils  define  latitude 
as  the  "'distance  north  and  south  of  the  equator." 
Such  a  definition  indicates  inaccuracy  of  thought, 
and  surely  reflects  upon  someone's  teaching.  Cor- 
rect the  fallacy  of  the  definition  by  changing  and 
to  or,  and  then  strengthen  it  by  adding  the  phrase, 
"measured  on  a  meridian."  When  pupils  see  the 
full  meaning  of  the  definition,  "Latitude  is  dis- 
tance north  or  south  of  the  equator  measured  on 
a  meridian,"  it  is  good  pedagogy  and  surely  good 
economy  to  have  it  learned  once  for  all.  Similarly, 
longitude  is  "distance  east  or  west  of  a  prime 
meridian  measured  on  a  parallel." 

The  examination  of  normal  students  reveals  a 
poor  conception  of  "equator."  The  old  notion  of 
"an  imaginary  line  around  the  earth"  is  preva- 
lent. This  definition  is  both  worthless  and  dan- 
gerous as  contrasted  with  the  terse  and  strong 
statement,  "The  equator  is  a  great  circle  of  the 
earth  perpendicular  to  its  axis."  But  this  defini- 
tion must  follow  the  true  conception  of  great 
circle,  together  with  the  conception  that  there  can 
be  only  one  such  circle  perpendicular  to  the 
earth's  axis. 

Such  old  and  faulty  definitions  as  "A  volcano 
is  a  mountain  that  sends  forth  fire,  smoke,  and 
lava"  should  be  abandoned.  A  volcano  is  an 
opening  in  the  earth's  crust  through  which  inter- 
nal materials  are  ejected;  whenever  a  mountain 


EMPHASIS  IN  TEACHING  281 

is  present,  it  is  incidental  to  the  true  phenomenon, 
having  been  built  up  by  the  ejected  materials.* 
]\It.  Shasta  is  a  good  example. 

The  mi -take  of  formulating  set  definitions  for 
the  features  and  phenomena  studied  in  the  first 
or  observational  phase  of  geography,  is  often 
made1.  That  a  pupil  in  the  third  or  fourth  grade 
knows  no  set  definition  of  a  hill,  is  no  argument 
that  lie  does  not  know  bill.  Definitions  at  this 
stage  of  learning  are  very  likely  to  be  stumbling- 
blocks.  How  many  educated  adults  are  in  posses- 
sion of  set  definitions  of  "hill,"  "valley," 
"river,"  "delta,"  etc.?  For  the  sake  of  definite- 
ness  it  is  probably  not  unwise  to  expect  pupils 
in  the  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  grades  to  know 
the  generalized  statements  given  as  definitions  or 
summaries,  for  the  day  only.  Outside  of  mathe- 
matical geography,  however,  there  are  compara- 
tively few  definitions  that  merit  memorizing. 

Xot  only  should  there  be  a  very  clear  conception 
developed  of  the  earth  in  space,  but  there  should 
be  drill  on  a  limited  number  of  locational  facts. 
Drill  may  well  be  given  on  imaginary  journeys 
around  the  earth  on  three  or  four  of  the  following 
suggested  circles : 

1 .  The  Equator. 

2.  The  Tropics. 

.">.  The  Fortieth  Parallel  North. 
4.  The  Sixtieth  Parallel  North. 


Sec  Iv'roJuction  to  Gcolony.  Scott,  p.  34. 


282  TEE  TEACEING  OF  GEOGEAPEY 

5.  The  Hundredth  Meridian  West  from  Greenwich. 

6.  The  Hundredth  Meridian  East. 

7.  The  Twentieth  Meridian  East. 

8.  The  Sixtieth  Meridian  West. 

With  a  few  locations  and  directions  thus  well 
established,  pupils  will  be  able  to  approximate 
distances  and  locations  for  practical  needs.  To 
insist  on  the  exact  location  of  all  countries  by 
latitude  and  longitude  would  be  to  place  emphasis 
upon  the  unessential  and  unfruitful. 

Principles,  inductively  developed  and  therefore 
understood,  can  well  be  memorized.  The  number 
of  such  principles  will  not  be  large,  and  their 
statement  should  be  terse  and  exact.  However, 
such  statements  are  generalizations  the  value  of 
which  has  already  been  discussed  in  Chapter  IX, 
p.  132.  Principles  are  quite  as  likely  to  be  eco- 
nomic as  physiographic.  Reference  to  the  impor- 
tance of  economic  principles  has  been  made  on 
pp.  89-90.  Indeed,  it  is  with  them  that  commercial 
geography  is  ultimately  concerned,  and  all  repre- 
sentative texts  on  the  subject  devote  consider- 
able space  to  the  exposition  of  these  laws  and 
principles. 

Definiteness  also  should  attend  the  teaching  of 
statistical  units  which  should  serve  as  keys  in  the 
interpretation  of  text  materials  and  in  compari- 
sons. So  far  as  notions  of  distant  lands  are  con- 
cerned, they  will  be  of  necessity  only  approxi- 
mately correct.  If  our  standards  of  interpretation 
and  comparison  are  quite  wrong  to  begin  with,  we 


EMPHASIS  IN  TEACHING  28? 

shall  be  far  from  the  truth  in  our  final  concep- 
tions. In  saying  that  standards  should  be  correct, 
it  is  meant  that  they  should  be  correct  within 
reasonable  limits ;  e.  g'.,  mountains  should  be 
measured  in  miles,  certainly  not  more  accurately 
than  in  even  thousands  of  feet;  areas  of  countries 
in  round  numbers  of  thousands,  etc.  Thus,  Pike's 
Peak  is  three  miles  high  and  Mt.  Washington  one 
mile  high;  Illinois  has  an  area  of  50,000  square 
miles,  and  Texas  an  area  of  L'50,000  square  miles; 
the  distance  in  a  straight  line  from  Chicago  to 
Boston  is  approximately  equal  to  the  distance 
from  Chicago  to  Denver;  from  Chicago  to  Xew 
Orleans;  from  Chicago  to  Jacksonville,  Florida. 
The  population  of  Cincinnati  is  approximately 
equal  to  that  of  ^Milwaukee;  of  Antwerp,  Belgium; 
and  of  Alexandria,  Egypt. 

In  like  maimer,  statistics  of  production  should 
be  reasonably  accurate.  A  limited  number  only 
should  lie  learned  to  serve  as  standards  of  com- 
parison, but  these  should  be  learned  thoroughly, 
(Reference  to  the  use  of  statistics  has  been  made 
on  p.  248.)  The  somewhat  questionable  results 
now  attained  in  geography  are  the  result  of  the 
educational  sentiment  that  has  underestimated 
the  knowledge  of  facts.  Some  facts,  some  laws, 
must  be  learned  in  the  study  of  geography,  or  the 
whole  intellectual  structure  will  be  without  sub- 
stantial framework.  So  the  completion  of  the 
course  should  presuppose  the  knowledge  of  a 
limited  number  of  generalized  facts  of  current 
interest  and  general  usefulness.    It  matters  little 


284        THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

to  just  what  these  facts  relate,  so  long  as  the  above 
requisites  be  satisfied.  For  example,  sugar  is  a 
staple  food  product  and  figures  in  every  tariff 
schedule  of  the  United  States.  A  well-trained 
grammar  school  pupil  should  have  some  idea  of 
the  rank  of  the  United  States  as  a  sugar  pro- 
ducing country,  if  later  as  a  citizen  he  shall  be 
entitled  to  an  opinion  on  the  justice  of  a  tariff  on 
this  commodity.  Hence  the  pupil  should  have 
learned  something  of  the  leading  sugar  producing 
regions  of  the  world  and  should  know  how  his 
own  country  compares  with  them  in  its  produc- 
tion. In  like  maimer,  rather  definite  notions 
should  be  gained  relative  to  the  production  of 
iron,  coal,  copper,  gold,  corn,  wheat,  cotton,  to- 
bacco, live  stock,  etc. 

In  a  negative  way  it  may  lie  well  to  point  out 
some  phases  that  have,  in  the  past,  been  over- 
emphasized. There  is  little  value,  in  the  long  run, 
in  "bounding"  countries,  and  as  soon  as  the 
regional  unit  is  generally  recognized,  there  will  be 
less  occasion  for  spending  energy  in  this  direction. 
So,  too,  the  description  of  rivers  is  not  very  fruit- 
ful. Knowledge  of  this  sort  should  be  learned 
incidentally  through  the  sketching  of  maps  and 
in  that  study  of  maps  in  which  mere  form  is  not 
the  object  of  attainment. 

Too  much  effort  should  not  be  given  to  the 
learning  and  locating  of  cities.  A  limited  number 
of  commercial,  manufacturing,  and  historical 
places  should  be;  carefully  located  and  thoroughly 
fixed    in    mind.     Liverpool,    Sail    Francisco,    Rio 


EMPHASIS  IN  TEACH IX G  285 

Janeiro,  and  New  Orleans;  Cleveland,  Grand 
Rapids,  Lyons,  Manchester,  and  Birmingham; 
Manila.  Bennington,  Waterloo,  Gettysburg,  Luck- 
now,  and  Richmond  are  examples  of  cities  that 
for  obvious  reasons  should  be  well  fixed  and 
properly  associated  in  the  mind. 

In  general,  also,  there  is  little  reason  for  learn- 
ing capes,  bays,  straits,  etc.,  for  any  intrinsic  value 
that  these  names  possess. 

But  whenever  such  features  function  as 
economic  or  strategic  points,  they  should  be 
learned.  Gibraltar,  because  it  controls  the  en- 
trance to  the  Mediterranean;  Hong-Kong,  because 
it  is  an  important  British  coaling  and  trading 
station;  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  because  of  their 
location  in  the  midst  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and 
their  consequent  economic  and  strategic  value  to 
the  United  States;  and  the  Suez  Canal,  because 
of  its  commercial  importance,  all  illustrate  true 
locational  values  in  geography,  and  so  point  to 
facts  that  should  be  emphasized  and  well  known 
by  pupils  on  their  completion  of  the  elementary 
school. 

In  a  larger  way,  also,  pupils  should  be  able  to 
image  the  continents  in  their  relative  positions  on 
the  globe,  and  should  be  able  to  make  rapid  free- 
hand sketches  of  them,  showing  the  major  features 
of  their  outlines.  They  should  have  clear  mental 
pictures  of  the  salient  relief  features  and  appre- 
ciate their  influence  upon  climate,  upon  distribu- 
tion of  population,  commerce,  etc.  For  example, 
pupils,  at  the  completion  of  the  elementary  school, 


2SC  THE  TEACHING   OF  GEOGEAFHY 

should  be  able  to  sketch  South  America  from 
memory;  to  show  the  Orinoco,  Amazon,  and  La 
Plata  rivers;  to  show  the  location  or  trend  of 
the  Guiana  and  Brazilian  Highlands  and  the 
Andes  Mountains;  to  locate  a  half  dozen  impor- 
tant cities — e.  g\,  Rio  Janeiro,  Buenos  Aires,  Val- 
paraiso, etc.;  to  be  able  to  explain  the  effects  of 
the  mountain  ranges  on  climate  and  rainfall, 
e.  g.,  the  causes  for  heavy  precipitation  in  western 
Brazil  and  for  the  aridity  of  northern  Chile;  to 
associate  with  the  larger  regions  of  the  country 
their  sources  of  wealth,  industries,  etc.  It  is  not 
desirable  or  reasonable  to  expect  pupils  to  be  able 
to  indicate  the  exact  boundaries  of  political  divi- 
sions, or  even  locate  their  capitals,  though  the 
gross  outlines  of  the  countries  should  be  acquired. 
That  Chile,  e.  g.,  is  a  long,  narrow  country  west 
of  the  Andes  and  bordering  the  Pacific  Ocean; 
that  the  precipitation  is  heavy  in  the  south  and 
very  light  in  the  north  ;  that  its  leading  exports  are 
woo],  hides,  wheat,  sodium-nitrate,  and  guano; 
that  its  trade  is  chiefly  with  Grea+  Britain  and 
Germany:  and  that  Valparaiso  is  its  leading  port; 
these  facts,  if  understood,  would  indicate  good 
results  from  the  teaching  of  this  particular  coun- 
try. Taking  South  America  as  a  whole,  a  resume 
like  the  following,  taken  from  Dodge's  Advanced 
Geo  graph]},  would  seem  adequate,  if  the  indi- 
vidual statements  can  be  explained  and  made 
meaningful    by  the  pupils: 

"South  America  is,  on  the  whole,  unprogressive, 
except  in  the  countries  of  the  temperate  belt  and 


EMPHASIS  IN  TEACHING  287 

in  Brazil.  The  governments  are  unstable,  revo- 
lutions are  frequent,  and  business  cannot  there- 
fore be  carried  on  successfully.  The  continent  is 
deficient  in  railroads  and  highways,  and  hence  the 
native  riches  are  not  developed.  The  exports  are 
mostly  mineral  and  cattle  products,  except  in  the 
few  scattered  agricultural  regions.  The  imports 
are  chiefly  foodstuffs  and  manufactured  goods, 
especially  textiles  and  steel.  It  is  anticipated  that 
when  the  Panama  Canal  is  completed,  so  that 
commerce  can  be  readily  carried  on  between  the 
western  coast  and  the  large  commercial  centers 
of  the  United  States,  the  continent  will  develop 
rapidly. ' ' 

ii. 

Ultimately,  the  richest  phase  of  geography  is 
that  which  is  explanatory  and  significant,  i.  e.,  the 
rational.*  It  is  this  phase  which  leads  to  an  appre- 
ciation of  physical  environment.  Xo  instruction 
in  geography  that  stops  short  of  this  acquirement 
can  be  considered  fruitful.  Often  large  numbers  of 
formal  facts  are  learned  by  pupils,  but  no  genuine 
appreciation  awakened:  no  permanent  interest 
aroused;  no  oneness  with  Nature  ever  felt.  Geog- 
raphy, broadly  considered,  is  humanitarian.  The 
real  test  of  its  worth  lies  in  the  inclination 
and  power  to  interpret.  A  ramble  through  the 
meadows,  a  walk  by  the  brook,  a  quiet  hour  by 


*  See    Generalization    and    Organization    of    Geographical    Mate- 
rials, Chap.  XIV. 


288  THE  TEACHING  OE  GEOGEAPHY 

the  lake-shore  or  sea-side,  is  delightful — yes,  fasci- 
nating to  him  whoso  eyes  are  fully  open  and  "to 
him  who  in  the  love  of  Nature  holds  communiou 
with  her  visible  forms." 

Pupils  in  the  grammar  grades  can  catcli  some- 
thing of  this  deeper  moaning,  if  rightly  taught. 
And  the  most  fruitful  method  is  that  which  brings 
pupils  and  earth  phenomena  into  direct  contact. 
Often,  very  often,  cold  formal  statements  are  the 
only  agencies  employed  by  teachers,  and  the 
results  obtained  are  fragmentary  and  unvital- 
ized.  But  excursion,  experiment,  and  museum 
are  agencies  through  which  a  genuine  awaken- 
ing can  be  effected.  It  would  be  very  difficult 
to  designate  the  exact  number  or  kind  of 
"earth  friendships"  that  any  class  of  pupils 
should  make.  Indeed,  it  matters  little  just  what 
they  are,  if  only  a  reasonable  number  are  estab- 
lished. The  kind  should  be  determined  very  largely 
by  the  immediate  environment  of  the  particular 
pupils  in  question.  Since  all  of  the  relationships 
of  geography  point  to  a  relatively  small  number 
of  laws  for  their  explanation,  it  is  often  imma- 
terial what  relationships  are  considered,  so  long 
as  the  basal  conception  is  gained.  Tims,  for  ex- 
ample, the  slow  uplift  of  the  continental  margin  in 
South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Florida,  has  caused 
a  retreat  of  the  sea-water  and  a  consequent  shal- 
lowing  of  the  embayments,  which  otherwise  might 
have  afforded  good  natural  harbors.  Occasionally 
a  downward  oscillation  in  some  locality,  as  at 
Mobile,  Alabama,  has  preserved  an  advantageous 


EMPHASIS  IN  TEACHING  289 

harbor;  but  this  phenomenon  on  the  coasts  of 
Maine  and  Norway  has  drowned  the  river-mouths 
and  converted  the  continental  margins  into  typical 
horded  coasts.  The  same  physiographic  process 
lifted  the  Colorado  Plateau  and,  by  increasing  the 
difference  between  land  and  sea  levels,  established 
conditions  which  favored  rapid  vertical  corrasion 
by  streams,  resulting  in  the  formation  of  canons 
so  gigantic  and  wonderful  that  the  mind  of  man 
views  with  amazement  the  stupendous  work  of 
Nature. 

Conceptions  of  this  bind  need  never  be  memo- 
rized, need  not  be  drilled  upon  or  reduced  to 
particular  form.  They  are  great  truths,  and,  once 
fully  conceived,  become  nuclei  of  important  apper- 
ceptive systems. 

There  is  no  danger  that  too  much  thinking,  inter- 
preting, explaining,  and  relating  will  be  at- 
tempted by  pupils  in  geography.  It  is  in  work  of 
this  kind  that  growth  and  development  occur. 
Grammar  school  geography  should  lend  itself 
largely  to  this  explanatory  and  rational  phase. 
Do  not  raise  the  objection  that  such  conceptions 
are  too  difficult — that  pupils  cannot  think!  The 
essence  of  all  good  teaching  is  found  in  the  ability 
to  make  pupils  think.  Geography  contains  rela- 
tively little  of  form-value,  relatively  much  of 
thought-value.  But  the  ideas  and  conceptions  are 
so  pertinent,  so  significant,  and  so  individually 
serviceable  and  explanatory,  that  they  establish  a 
pre-eminence  among  intellectual  acquisitions. 


290  TUB  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

SUGGESTIONS    AND    QUESTIONS. 

1.  History  lias  a  geographical  basis.  Literature,  also,  may  involve 
the  geographical. 

".  In  connection  with  the  study  of  Gloucester,  Massachusetts,  as 
a  fishing  station,  read  "Skipper  Ireson 's  Ride";  in  connec- 
tion with  Mobile,  read  "The  Bay  Eight";  in  connection 
with  Sebastopol,  Crimea,  read  "The  Charge  of  the  Light 
Brigade, ' '  etc. 

3.  Suggest  several  good  drill-exercises  for  geography. 

4.  To    emphasize    everything,    means    no    emphasis    at    all.      Dis- 

criminate sharply  between  the   important  and  essential,  and 
that  which  is  interesting  only. 

5.  How    often    in    your    daily    experience    do    you    find    it    advan- 

tageous to  know  that    Mt.  Kilimanjaro  is   19,000   ft.   high? 
What  value  would  you  assign  to  this  fact? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Tarr,  "Whitbeek,  Genthe,  and  Jefferson — "Results  to  be  Expected 
from  a  School  Course  in  Geography,"  Journal  of  Gcog.,  April, 
190.1. 

Redway,  J.  W.—  "Final  Results  in  the  Study  of  Geography," 
Journal  of  Geog.,  Dec.,  1904. 

Emerson,  Philip — "Results  of  an  Elementary  Course  in  Geog- 
raphy,''  Journal   of   Geog.,   Dec,    1904. 

Farnham,  A.  W. — "What  a  Child  Should  Know  of  Geography  :it 
the  F'hid  of  II is  Grade  Course,"  Journal  of  Geog.,  Nov.,  1904. 


APPENDIX. 

Bibliography   of   the    Pedagogy   of   Geography. 

Brigham,  A.  P.,  "Physical  Geography  in  Secon- 
dary Schools,"  Proe.  N.  E.  A.,  1897. 

Brigham,  .V.  P.,  "The  New  Geography,"  Popular 
Science  Monthly,  Vol.  4-S. 

Bryce,  James,  "  Importance  of  Geography  in  Edu- 
cation," Geographical  Teacher,  Vol.  I,  p.  4!). 

Chamberlain,  J.  F.,  "Geography  as  a  Basis  of 
Correlation,"  Bulletin  of  the  American  Bu- 
reau of  Geography,  Vol.  I. 

Chamber]  in,  T.  C. — lie  port  of  Geographical  Con- 
ference.    American  Book  Co. 

Collie  G.  L.,  "Physiography  in  the  Schools."  Bul- 
letin of  the  American  Bureau  of  Geography, 
Vol.  1. 

Davis,  W.  M.,  Progress  of  Geography  in  the 
Schools,  First  Year  Book,  Herbart  Society. 

Davis,  \Y.  M.,  "Teaching  of  Geography,"  Edu- 
cational Review,  Vols.   Ill   and   IV. 

Davis,  W.  M..  "The  Rational  Element  in 
Geography,"  National  Geographic  Magazine, 
Vol.   X. 

Frye.  A.  F.,  Jlnir  to  Teach  Primary  Geography, 
Giim   &  Co. 

2'J1 


)>VZ  ZEE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

Frve,  A.  E.,  Brooks  and  Brook-Basins,  Ginn 
&  Co. 

Frye,  A.  E.,  The  Child  and  Nature,  Ginn  &  Co. 

Frye,  A.  E.,  Teachers'  Manual  of  Geography, 
Ginn  &  Co. 

Geikie,  A.,  The  Teaching  of  Geography,  The  Mac- 
millan  Co. 

Gibbs,  David,  "The  Pedagogy  of  Geography," 
Pedagogical  Seminary,  March,  1907. 

Hall,  G.  Stanley,  "Love  and  Study  of  Nature," 
Worcester  Hist.  Soc.  Pam.  1898. 

Harris,  W.  T.,  "The  Place  of  Geography  in  the 
Elementary  School,"  Forum,  Vol.  32.,  p.  759. 

Jefferson.  M.  S.  W.,  "Outdoor  Work  in  Geog- 
raphy," Proc.  X.  E.  A.,  1904. 

Keltic,  J.  Scott,  "Function  and  Field  of  Geog- 
raphy," Smithsonian  Report,  1897. 

Keltic,  J.  Scott,  Applied  Geography,  Philip  & 
Son,  London. 

King,  ('has.  F.,  "Concrete  Geography,"  Bui.  of 
the  Am.  Bureau  of  Geography,  Vol.  T. 

King.  ('has.  F.,  Methods  and  +Lids  in  Geography, 
Lee  &  Shepard. 

Kummel,  II.  B.,  "Laboratory  "Work  in  Physiog- 
raphy," Bui.  of  the  Am.  Bureau  of  Geog- 
raphy, Vol.  I. 

McCormick,  Henry,  "What  to  Teach  in  Geog- 
raphy,"  Bui.  of  the  Am.  Bureau  of  Geog- 
raphy, Vol.  T. 

McCormick,  Henry,  Suggestions  on  Teaching 
Geography,  Public  School  Publishing  Co. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  293 

MacKinder,  IT.  J.,  "Development  of  Geography 
Out  of  Nature  Study,"  Educational  Founda- 
tions, Vol.  XVI,  p.  194. 

McMurrV,  C.  A.,  Special  Method  in  Geography, 
The  Macmillan  Co. 

Mill,  IT.  P.,  Geography  in  European  Universities. 

Mill,  II.  11.,  Hints  to  Teachers  on  Choice  of  Geo- 
graphical Hooks  for  Reference  and  Heading, 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

Miller,  E.  L,  "Educational  Value  of  Geography 
Study,"  Bui.  of  the  Am.  Bureau  of  Geog- 
raphy, Vol.  I. 

Potter,  .J.  11.,  "History  of  Methods  of  Instruction 
in  Geography,"  Pedagogical  Seminary,  Vol. 
I,  Pec.  1891.* 

Powell.  J.  AV .,  "Geographical  Instruction  in  Pub- 
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Kedway,  J.  AV.,  Reproduction  of  Geographic 
Forms,  D.  C.  Heath  £  Co. 

Pt  (1  way.  J.  \\\,  "Status  of  Geography  Teaching," 
Educational  Review,  Vol.  VII. 

Kedway,  J.  A\'..  The  New  Basis  of  Geography, 
Macmillan  Co. 

Iiitter,  Carl,  Comparative  Geography,  Van  Ant- 
werp. Bragg  &  Co. 

Hitter,  Carl.  Geographic  Studies,  American  Book 
Co.   (translation  by  W.  L.  Gage). 

Tarr,  li.  S..  "The  Use  of  Physiography  in  Geog- 
raphy Study."  Bui.  of  the  Am.  Bureau  of 
Geography,  Vol.  I. 

Trotter.  Spencer,  "The  Social  Function  of  Geog- 


294  THE   TEACH  I XG  OF  GE0GEAFI1Y 

raphy, "  Fourth  Annual  Year  Book,  Herbart 
Society. 

Trotter,  Spencer,  Lessons  in  the  New  Geography, 
D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

"Ward,  Effie  May,  "Geographic  Interests  of  Chil- 
dren," Education,  Vol.  XVIII. 

Whitbeck,  R.  IT..  "Geography  in  the  Elementary 
Schools,"  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1908,  p.  971. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY    OF    SUBJECT-MATTER. 

Adams,  C.  C,  Commercial  Geography,  D.  Apple- 
ton  Co. 

Ball,  P.,  The  Cause  of  an  Ice  Age,  D.  Appleton  Co. 

Ball,  P.,  The  Earth's  Beginnings,  D.  Appleton  Co. 

Beazley,  C.  K.,  The  Dawn  of  Modern  Geography, 
The  Clarendon  Press. 

Bonney,  T.  G.,  Ice  Work,  Past  and  Present.  D.  Ap- 
pleton Co. 

Bonney,  T.  G.,   Volcanoes,  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 

Brigham,  A.  P.,  Geographic  Influences  in  Amer- 
ican History,  (Jinn  &  Co. 

Britton,  X.  L.,  Xorth  American  Trees,  Henry 
Holt  eV:  Co. 

Carpenter,  F.  G.,  Geographical  Headers,  Amer- 
ican  i  >ook   ( 'o. 

Chamberlain,  J.  F.,  How  We  Are  Clothed,  The 
Macmillan  Co. 

Chamberlain,  J.  F.,  How  We  Are  Fed,  The  Mac- 
millan <  'o. 

Chamberlain.  .1.  V ..  How  We  Are  Sheltered,  The 
Macmillan  Co. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  295 

Chamberlin   &    Salisbury,    Geology,   ilcnry    Ilolt 

&  Co. 
Chase  and  Cloe,  Stories  of  Industry,  Vols.  I  and 

I T,  Educational  Publishing  Co. 
Channing  &  Lansing,  Story  of  the  (treat  Lakes, 

The  Macmillan  Co. 
Chisholm,   C.   G.,   Commercial  Geography,  Long- 
mans, Green  cV:  Co. 
Cobbold,  R.  P.,  Innermost  Asia,  The  Macmillan  Co. 
Coe,  Fannie  E.,  Our  American  Neighbors,  Silver, 

Burdette  &  Co. 
Conway,  \V.  M.,  The  Alps,  The  Macmillan  Co. 
Cook,  Joel,  America,  Picturesque  and  Descriptive, 

John  C.  Winston  Co. 
Dall,  AV.  JL,  Alaska   and  Its  Resources,  Lee  & 

Shepard. 
Darwin,  Charles,  Corals  and  Coral  Islands,  Dodd, 

Mead  &  Co. 
Davis,  \\  .  M.,  Elementary  Meteorology,  Ginn  &  ( 'o. 
Davis,    \V.   M.,  Elementary  Physical  Geography, 

Ginn  &  Co. 
Dawson,    AY.    H.,    German    Life    in    Town    and 

Country,  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 
Dexter  &  Garlick,  Object  Lessons  in  Geography, 

Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 
De   AYindt,    IP.    Through   Savage   Europe,  J.   B. 

Lippincott. 
Dodge,   R.   E.,  A   Reader  in  Physical  Geography, 

Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 
Dryer,    C.    R.,    Physical    Geography,    American 

Book  Co. 
Dutton,  C.  I'1...  Earthquakes,  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 


296  TEE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

Edwards,    W.    S.,    Into    the    Yukon,   Jennings   & 

Graham. 
Edwards,    W.    S.,    On    the    Mexican    Highlands, 

Jennings  &  Graham. 
Edwards,  W.  S.,  Through  Scandinavia  to  Moscow, 

Jennings  &  Graham. 
Fairbanks,  II.  W.,  Practical  Physiography,  Allyn 

&  Bacon. 
Fairbanks,  II.  W.,   Rocks  and  Minerals,  Educa- 
tional Pub.  Co. 
Ford,  I.  X.,  Tropical  America,  Scribners. 
Foster,  J.  W.,  A  Century  of  American  Diplomacy, 

Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 
Freeman,  E.  A.,  Historical  Geography  of  Europe, 

Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 
Fricker,   C.   F.,  Antarctic  Regions,  The  Macmil- 

lan  Co. 
Frye,  A.  E.,  Child  and  Nature,  Hyde  Park  Pub- 
lishing Co. 
Frye,  A.  E.,  Geography  and  Sand  Modeling,  Bay 

State  Pub.  Co. 
Gannett,     Garrison,     and     Houston,    Commercial 

Geography,  American  Book  Co. 
Geikie,   A.,  Geography  of  the  British  Isles,  The 

Maemillan  Co. 
Geikie,   A.,   Outline  of  Field  Geology,  The   Mac- 

millan  Co. 
George,   II.    I>.,   The  Relations  of  Geography    ind 

History,  Silver,  Burdette  &  Co. 
Gifford,  J.  (,'.,  Practical  Forestry. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  297 

Gilbert  and  Brigham,  Introduction  to  Physical 
Geography,  L).  Appleton  Co. 

Green,  Homer,  Coal  and  Cool  Mines,  Houghton, 
Mifflin  &  Go. 

Green,  S.  B.,  Principles  of  American  Forestry, 
John  Wiley  &  Sons. 

Grosvenor,  G.  II.,  Scenes  From.  Every  Land,  Na- 
tional Geographic  Society,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Guyot,  Arnold,  Earth  and  Man,  Charles  Scribner's 
Sons. 

Heilprin,  Arnold,  Distribution  of  Animals,  I). 
Appleton  Go. 

Heilprin,  A.,  The  Earth  and  Its  Story,  Silver,  Bur- 
dette  &  Co. 

Henry.  A.  J.,  Climatology  of  the  United  States, 
l'.  S.  Weather  Bureau. 

Herbertson,  A.  J.  and  P.  I).,  Descriptive  Geogra- 
phy From  Original  Sources,  Central  and 
SoutJi  America,  The  Macmillan  Co. 

Herbertson,  A.  J.  and  F.  I).,  Man  and  His  Work, 
The  Macmillan  Co. 

Hickson,  S.  J.,  The  Fauna  of  the  Deep  Sea,  I).  Ap- 
pleton Co. 

Iligginson,  T.  W.,  Tales  of  the  Enchanted  Isles 
of  the  Atlantic,  The  Macmillan  Co. 

Hill,  G.  W.,  Planetary  Motion,  G.  P.  Putnam's 
Sons. 

Ilornaday,  W.  T.,  American  Natural  History, 
( 'has.  Scribner's  Sons. 

Huntington,  P.,  The  Pulse  of  Asia,  Houghton, 
Mifflin  &  Co. 


298  THE   TEACHING   OF   GEOGRAPHY 

Jacobs,  J.,  Story  of  Geographical  Discovery,  D. 

Appleton  Co. 
Johnson,  C,  The  Isle  of  the  Shamrock,  Harper 

&  Bros. 
Johnson,  C,  The  Land  of  Heather,  The  Macmil- 

lan  Co. 
Jordan,  David  Starr,  Fishes,  Henry  Holt  &  Co. 
Jordan,  David  Starr,  Science  Sketches. 
Kellogg,   V.    L.,   American   Insects,   Henry   Holt 

&  Co. 
Kellogg,  V.  L.,  Australia  and  the  Islands  of  the 

Sea,  Silver,  Burdette  &  Co. 
Keltie,  J.   S.,   Ed.  Statesman's   Year  Book,  The 

Macmillan  Co. 
Lankester,  E.  Ray,  Extinct  Animals,  Henrv  Holt 

&  Co. 
Lankester,  E.  Ray,  The  Kingdom  of  Man,  Henry 

Holt  &  Co. 
Le  Conte,  Jos.,  Compend  of  Geography,  American 

Book  Co. 
Leete,  C.  H.,  Exercises  in  Geography,  Longmans, 

Green  &  Co. 
Lloyd,  A.,  Everyday  in  Japan,  Cassell  &  Co. 
Lockyer,  J.  N.,  The  Movements  of  the  Earth,  The 

Macmillan  Co. 
Lncas,    F.    A.,    Animals    Before    Man    in    North 

America,  D.  Appleton  Co. 
MoMurry,  C.  A.,  Larger  Type  Studies  in  United 

States  Geography,  The  Macmillan  Co. 
McMurry,  C.  A.,  'Type  Studies  from  United  States 

Geography,  The  Macmillan  Co. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  299 

MacFarlane,  Jos.,  An  American  Geological  Rail- 
way Guide,  I).  Appleton  ( !o. 
Maury,  M.  F.,  and  Simonds,  F.  W.,  Physical  Geog- 
raphy, American  Book  Co. 
Mendenhall,    C.    T.,    The    Measurement    of    the 

Earth,  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 
Merrill,  G.  P.,  Rocks,  Rock-Weathering  and  Sods, 

The  Macmillan  Co. 
Merrimau,  II.  C,  Life  Areas  of  North  America, 

G.  I*.  Putnam's  Sons. 
Merrimau,   II.   C,  Mammals   of  the  Adirondack' 

Region,  Henry  Holt  &  Co. 
Merrimau,   H.   C,    Wild  Mammals,   Henry  Holt 

&  Co. 
Mill,  Hugh  P.,  The  New  International  Geography. 
Milne,  J.,  Earthquakes,  D.  Appleton  Co. 
Moore,  Geo.  T.,  Seedless  Plants,  Henry  Holt  &  Co. 
Morgan,    A.,    Elementary    Physiography,    Long- 
mans, Green  &  Co. 
Muir.  John,  Mountains  of  California,  Century  Co. 
Newell,   F.   II.,  Irrigation    in   the   United  States, 

Thomas  Y.  Crowell. 
Nicholson,  II.  A.,  The  Ancient  Life  History  of  the 

Earth,  1).  Appleton  Co. 
Osborn,  C.  S.,  The  Andean  Land,  A.  C.  McClurg 

&  Co. 
Palmer,    F.    II.    E.,    Russian    Life    in    Town    and 

Country,  G.  P.  Put  nam's  Sons. 
Patton,  J.  H.,  Natural  Resources  of  the  United 

States,  D.  Appleton  Co. 
Peary,  R.  E.,  Nearest  the  Pole,  Doubleday,  Page 

&  Co. 


300  THE   TEACHING   OF   GEOGRAPHY 

Perry,   Mason   &   Co.- — The   Companion   Series: 

Our  Country:  East. 

Our  Country:   West. 

By  Land  and  Sea. 

Talks  About  Animals. 

Northern  Europe. 

Under  Sunny  Skies. 

Toward  the  Rising  Sun. 
Pinehot,    Gifford,    Primer    of   Forestry,    Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 
Powell,  J.  TV.,  Canons  of  the  Colorado,  Flood  & 

Vincent. 
Powell,  J.  TV,  and  Others,  Physiography  of  the 

United  States,  American  Book  Co. 
Powell,  J.  TV,  The  Arid  Region,  United  States 

Geological  Survey. 
Rectus,    Elisee,    Ocean,    Atmosphere,    and    Life, 

Harper  &  Bros. 
Reclus,   Elisee.   The  Earth  and  Its  Inhabitants, 

Harper  &  Bros. 
Redway,  J.  TV.,  Commercial  Geography,  Charles 

Scribner's  Sons. 
Redway,  J.  TV.,  Physical  Geography,  Chas.  Scrib- 
ner's Sons. 
Redway,  J.  TV.,  Physical  Geography  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi River,  J).  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
Redway.  J.  TV.,  The  New  Basis  of  Geography,  The 

TIacmillan  Co. 
Bitter,  Carl,  Comparative  Geography,  American 

Book  Co. 
Rocheleau,    TV.    F.,    Great   American    Industries, 

Minerals,  A.  Flanagan  Co. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  301 

Roclieleau,  \Y.  P.,  (treat  American  Industries, 
Manufactures,  A.  Flanagan  Co. 

Russell,  I.  C,  Glaciers  of  Xortli  America,  Ginn 
&  Co. 

Russell,  I.  C,  Lakes  of  Xorth  America,  Ginn  &  Co. 

Russell,  I.  C,  Xortli  America,  I ).  Appleton  Co. 

Russell,  1.  C,  ifrrers  0/  Xorf/i  Amer'ua,  (J.  P.  Put- 
nam's Sons. 

Salisbury.  II.  I)..  Physiography  for  High  Schools, 
Henry  Holt  &  Co. 

Slialer,  X.  S.,  Aspects  of  the  Earth,  ('has.  Scrib- 
ner's  Sons. 

Slialer,  X.  S.,  First  Book  in  Geology,  1).  C.  Heath 

lV:  Co. 
Slialer,  X.  S.,  Xature  and  Man  in  Xortli  America, 

Cbas.  Seribner's  Sons. 
Slialer.   X.    S.,   Outlines   of   the   Earth's   History, 

('has.  Seribner's  Sons. 
Slialer,   X".   S.,   Sea   and  Laud,  Chas.   Seribner's 

Sous. 
Slialer,    X".    S.,    Story    of   Our   Continent,    Chas. 

Seribner's  Sons. 
Slialer,  X.  S.,  United  States  of  America,  2  Vols., 

( 'has.  Seribner's  Sons. 
Shaw.    E.   R.,   Big   People   and  Little  People   of 

Other  Lands,  American  Book  Co. 
Shinn.  C.  II.,  The  Story  of  the  Mine,  D.  Apple- 

ton  Oo. 
Skinner.    R.   P..  Ahyssinia  of  Today,  Longmans, 

( Ireen  &  ( 'o. 
Starr.  Frederic,  Strange  Peoples,  Harper  &  Bros. 


302  THE   TEACHING   OE   GEOGEAPEY 

Tarr,  B,  8.,  Economic  Geology,  The  Macmillan  Cc 

Tarr,  B.  S.,  Elementary  Geology,  The  Macmil- 
lan Co. 

Tarr,  E.  S.,  First  Book  in  Physical  Geography. 
The  Macmillan  Co. 

Tarr.  E.  S.,  Physical  Geography  of  New  York 
State,  The  Macmillan  Co. 

Tarr  and  McMurry,  Europe  and  Other  Continents, 
The  Macmillan  Co. 

Tarr  and  McMurry,  North  America,  The  Macmil- 
lan Co. 

Tarr  and  McMurry,  The  Home  Geography,  The 
Macmillan  Co. 

Taylor,  Bayard.  Boys  of  Other  Countries,  G.  P. 
Putnam's  Sons. 

Thornton,  J.,  A  Primary  Physical  Geography, 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

Thornton,  J.,  Elementary  Physiography,  Long- 
mans, Green  &  Co. 

Thwaites,  E.  G.,  Historic  Waterways,  A.  C.  Mc- 
Clurg  &  Co. 

Thwaites,  E.  G.,  Racing  Mountain  Explorations, 
I).  Appleton  Co. 

Trotter,  Spencer,  Lessons  in  the  New  Geography, 
I).  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

Tyndall,  J.,  Essays  on  the  Floating  Matter  in  Air, 
I).  Appleton  Co. 

Tyndall,  J.,  Forms  of  Water,  Clouds,  Rivers, 
Glaciers,  D.  Appleton  C<>. 

Verne,  J.,  Exploration  of  the  World,  Chas.  Scrib- 
ner's  Sons. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  303 

Vincent,  F.,  Actual  Africa,  or  the  Coming  Conti- 
nent, I).  Appleton  Co. 

Waldo,  F.,  Elementary  Meteorology,  American 
Book  Co. 

Wallace,  Alfred  11.,  Island  Life,  The  Macmillan 
Co. 

Wallace,  Alfred  R.,  Travels  in  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago, The  Macmillan  Co. 

Ward,  R.  D.,  Practical  Exercises  in  Meteorology, 
Ginn  &  Co. 

White,  Richard  Grant,  England  Within  and 
Without,  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

Young,  L.,  Heal  Hawaii,  Doubleday  &  McClure  Co. 

A    SMALL    BUT    VALUABLE     GEOGRAPHICAL    LIBRARY 
YOU  RURAL  SCHOOLS. 

1.  A  New  International  Geography,  Mill,  D.  Appleton $3.50 

2.  Commercial  Raw  Materials,  Toothaker,  Ginn  &  Co 1.25 

3.  A  New  Sdiool  Atlas,  Longman,  Longmans,  Green  &  Co..  .    1.50 

4.  Geographical   Influences   in  American   History,   Brigham, 

( !inn  &  Co 1.25 

5.  Starland,  Ball,  The  Cassell  Co 1.00 

6.  A    Reader    of    Physical    Geography,    Dodge,    Longmans, 

Green   &    Co 70 

7.  One   Standard    Commercial   Geography   selected   from    the 

following  list : 

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(1))    Geography  of  Commerce,  Trotter,  Macmillan  Co....  1. 10 

(<•)    Commercial  Geography,  Redway,  Charles  Scribners..  1.25 

(d)  Handbook     of     Commercial     Geography,     Chisholm, 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co 4.30 

(e)  Geography    of    Commerce   and   Industry,   Rocheleau, 
Educational  Publishing  Co 1.00 

S.  One    set    of    Geographical    Readers   chosen    from   the    fol- 
lowing: 


.304        THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

(a)  Carpenter,  American  Book  Co.: 

North  America 60 

South   America GO 

Europe    70 

Asia GO 

Australia,    Our   Colonies   and    Other   Islands    of    the 

Sea   60 

Africa    60 

Industrial   Header,   Foods 60 

(b)  The  World  and   Its  People,  Silver,  Burdette  &  Co.: 

Our  Own  Country 50 

Our  American  Neighbors GO 

Modern   Europe GO 

Life  in  Asia GO 

Views  in  Africa 72 

Australia  and  the  Islands  of  the  Sea G8 

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South  A  merican  Republics GO 

(c)  Picturesque  Geographical  Readers — Charles  F.  King, 
Lee  &  Shepard: 

Home   and  School 58 

This  Continent  of  Ours 83 

The  Land  We  Live  In,  Part  I 64 

The  Land  We  Live  In,  Part  II G4 

The  Land  We  Live  In,  Part  III 64 

i).   How   We  Are  Clothed,  How  We  Are  Sheltered,  and  How 

We  Are  Fed,  Chamberlain,  3  Vols.,  ]\Iaciiiillan  Co,  each.     .40 

10.  Home  Geography,  Fairbanks,  Educational    Publishing  Co.      .00 

11.  About  the  Weather,  Harrington,  D.  Appleton  Co 05 

A    MAP    EQUIPMENT    FOR   A   RURAL    SCHOOL. 

Xo  school,  however  small,  should  have  less  than 
the  following  equipment  of  maps: 

1.  World  Mercator's  Projection. 

2.  Eastern  and  Western  Hemispheres. 
o.  United  States,  Canada  and  Mexico. 
4.     Eurasia. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  305 

5.  North  America  and  South  America. 

6.  State  Map. 

7.  A  Globe  of  some  description. 

The  following  more  complete  map  equipment 
for  a  rural  school  can  be  had  so  cheaply  that 
there  seems  to  be  little  excuse  for  not  having  it 
rather  than  the  one  just  suggested. 

1.  "World  Mercator's  Projection. 

2.  Eastern  and  Western  Hemispheres. 

3.  United  States,  Canada  and  Mexico. 

4.  Europe. 

5.  Asia. 

6.  Africa. 

7.  North  America. 

8.  South  America. 

9.  State  Map. 

10.     A  Globe  of  some  description. 

The  above  maps,  with  the  exception  of  the  state 
map,  can  be  secured  in  a  single  spring-roller  oak 
case  from  the  following  companies,  namely: 
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Chicago  111. — Johnston  Maps $12.50 

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Hall   &   MeCreary,  261  Wabash  Ave.,   Chi- 
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M,  A.  Donolme  &  Co.,  407  Dearborn  St.,  (  Mii- 

casro,  ill.— lied  Line  Series 10.00 


306  THE   TEACHING   OE   GEOGRAPHY 

W.  M.  Welch  &  Co.,  179  Illinois  St.,  Chi- 
cago,  J II 11.00 

Any    of    the    above    maps    may    be    purchased 
singly  as  follows : 
A.   C.   McClurg  lV:   Co.,  Wabash   Ave.   and 

Adams  St.,  Chicago $  1.70 

W.  M.  Welch  &  Co.,  179  Illinois  St..  Chicago     2.00 
M.   A.  Donahue  &  Co.,  407   Dearborn   St., 

Chicago 2.25 

Atlas  School  Supply  Co.,  315  Wabash  Ave., 

Chicago  2.00 

A.  Flanagan  &  Co.,  268  Wabash  Ave.,  Chi- 
cago         2.00 

J.    L.    Hammett    Co.,    250   Devonshire    St., 

Boston,  Mass 2.33 

Rand,  McNally  &  Co.,  Chicago,  111.   (Kiep- 

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Hall  &  Mc<  'reary,  201  Wabash  Ave,  Chicago     2.00 

Excellent  state  maps  may  be  secured  from 
almost  any  of  the  above  companies  at  about 
$2.00  each. 

IDEAL   MAP   EQUIPMENT  FOR  A  RURAL  SCHOOL. 

1.  One  set  of  eight  up-to-date  authentic  political 

maps  showing  latest  geographic  discoveries 
and  political  changes. 

Sec  lisl  and  prices  given  in  (i  Minimum 
Equipment  for  Rural  Schools."1 

2.  A  blackboard  outline  map  of  Enitod  States. 

A.   II.  Andrews  &  Co.,  178  Wabash 
Ave.,   Chicairo $  2.00 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  30? 

A.  Flanagan  &  Co 1 .50 

A.  ('.   McClurg  &  Co.   (in   Diamond 

roller  case) 4.50 

J.  L.  Hammett  lV  Co.  (in  roller  case)     3.75 
3     One  physical  wall  map  of  North  America  and 
one  of  Europe. 
Rand,   McNally   &   Co.    (imported), 

Kiepert's $  9.00 

Rand,   McNally  &   Co.    (imported), 

Sydow-llabeniclit   15.00 

4.  One  suspension    globe.    Necessary,    as    hemi- 

sphere maps  distort  directions,  divide  oceans 
and  sever  ocean  cables,  ocean  currents,  iso- 
therms, etc. 

The  Sturgis  Co.,  1030  Warren  Ave., 
Chicago,  111. 

IS1, /  [1L  globe $1(5.75 

Rand,  McNally  &  Co. 

181  r,  in.  oi()iJ0 18.00 

12  in.  globe 6.25 

A.  Flanagan  &  Co. 

12  in.  globe 8.00 

Hall  &  McCreary. 

IS  in.  globe 16.00 

A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co. 

1 S  in.  globe 1  ?.o' ' 

5.  One  large  scale  indexed  state  ma]). 

Rand,  McXaliy  &  Co. (in  Diamond  case)  $4.80 

(I.   Reversible  map,   1".  S.  on  one  side,  the   World 

on   the  other.     Shows   railroads,   large  cities, 

steamship  and  cable  lines  and  ocean  currents. 

A.  ('.  McClurg  ifc:  Co $1.80 


308  THE   TEACHING   OF   GEOGRAPHY 

7.  One  blackboard  outline  map  of  the  state. 

A.  Flanagan  &  Co $1.50 

8.  One    Politico-Relief    Map    of    United    States 

(a  model). 
Atlas  School  Supply  Co $17.00 

EXCELLENT  EQUIPMENT  EOE  A  VILLAGE  GRADED  SCHOOL. 

All  that  is  included  in  an  ideal  equipment  for 
a  rural  school  with  the  following  additions: 

1.  A   physical   map   of   each   of   the    continents, 

either  Kiepert's  or  Sydow-IIabenicht's. 

2.  One    complete    set    of    Politico-Relief    maps 

(models),  [is  follows: 

1.  North  America. 

2.  South  America. 

3.  Europe. 

4.  Asia. 

5.  Africa. 

G.     United  States. 

7.     World  Mercator's  Projection. 

Atlas  School  Supply  Co '. $100.00 

Central  School  Supply  House,  Chicago.  .  .  .    100.00 
Should  the  very  best  be  desired,  secure  the  E.  E, 
Howell  Series,  Washington,  I).  C. 

LANTERNS    AXD   LANTERN    SLTDES. 

Bausch  &  Lomb  Optical  Company,  Rochester,  N.Y. 

The  Buckeye  Co.,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

The   Mackintosh  Stereoptieon  Co.,   Randolph  St., 

Chicago,  111. 
T.  IT.   McAllister  Co.,  40  Nassau  St.,  New  York, 

N.  Y. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  309 

Williams,  Brown  &  Earle,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
The  Badger  Stereopticon  Co.,  Platteville,  Wis. 
Moore,  Bond  &  Co.,  106  Franklin  St.,  Chicago,  111. 

PICTURES. 

The  Nature  Study  Publishing  Co.,  521   Wabash 
Ave.,  Chicago,  111. 

MODELING    MATERIALS. 

J.  L.  Ilammett,  110  West  14th  St.,  New  York. 

STEREOSCOPIC  VIEWS. 

Keystone  View  Co.,  Meadville,  Pa. 
Underwood  &  Underwood,  New  York  City. 
The  H.  C.  White  Co.,  770  Monon  Bldg.,  Chicago. 


GENERAL    INDEX, 


Adjustment    te    environment,    24  ;  Davis,    W.    M.,    quoted,    21;    30; 

28.  1  lit;  ;  (in  aims  of  geography,   .si. 

Adjustments,   in  geography,   place,  Deductive  lesson,   15(5-15!). 

87-9;     economic,     80-00;     polit-  Descriptive  geography,   44-4G. 

ical   or  social,  ill.  De   Veide,    II.   S..   quoted   on   value 

Agassiz,  old  lake  of,  51  ;  S8.  of  magazine  articles,   1ST. 

Agriculture,    55.  Diastrophism    discussed,     128-130. 

Aims  of  geography,   80-9.1  ;  as  de-  Dodge,    H.    K.,   quoted   on   aims   in 

lined    by    educators,    80-80;    as  Geography,      82;      on     regional 

adjustment    to   environment,   SO-  geography,    It;.'!. 

ill;     correlative     aims,     91-92;  Drainage   canal    an   illustration   of 

practical  aims.  92;  culture  aim,  human    control.    35. 

92-93.  Dril'tless   area,    74-70. 
Alabama,   soils   of,   31. 

Alluvial    soils,    204-205.  Economic  adjustment.  89-90. 

Altitude    as    control,    :;:'..  Economics   involved  in  geography, 

Andrews,   A.   W.,  quoted  on  use  of  102-105. 

mails,   251.  Emphasis,    necessity    of.    274-289; 

Anticline    in    Illinois.    7-'!.  on    pronunciation    and    spelling, 

Appreciation     of    geography,     lack  275-277;  on   meaning  of  names, 

of,  20.  277-279;  on  geographical  delini- 

Arguments   in   favor  of  a   regional  lions,     279-2.S1  ;     on     Ideational 

treatment.    103-104.  facts     and     statistics.     2S1-2S4  ; 

Assignments,     unpurposeful,     173;  danger    of    over-emphasis.     284- 

purposeful,      li  1-175;      illustra-  287;       emphasis      on       rational 

tive,       1 T * '»  177;       text       assign-  phase,  287-2S9. 

nients,    181.  Excursions,    school,    208-214;   why 

Astronomy,    as    related    to   geogra-  valuable,     209;     suggestive     in- 

phy,   57.  dustrial     excursions,     'Jin;     field 

Atmosphere  as  a  control,  32.  excursions,  211-211;  288. 

Barometer,  how  to  make.  218-219.  Field   work.   211  ;   preparation   for, 

liiologv,    as    related    to   geography,  212;     suggestive     Held     studies, 

54-55.  213-211. 

Blue    Grass    Region.    2  1.  Fiske,     John,     reference     to,     32; 

Bryce,      .lame-,      quoted,      50;     on  lop. 

aims  of  geography,  Sl-83.  Formalism    in    education,    reaction 

againsl.    lt','.)-l  70  ;    bow   avoided, 

Caldwell,      Otis      \\\.      quoted      on  ISO;   205. 

nature   study   values,   4S-1P.  Fox      river,      sub-glacial      channel, 

Causal     element     in     organization.  131. 

lOs-10'.t. 

Cause  and  eii'eei   in  geography,  23.  Galveston    catastrophe,    .".2. 

Civilization,    its    test.    111.  Generalization,     importance    of    to 

Climatic   provinces.   29.  teacher,    131-132  ;    100-171. 

Controls,     defined.      35;      tempera-  Geography,     as    a     science,     19;    a 

lure    as,    29;    harriers    as.    33;  study    of    relationships,     19-21; 

moisture  as.  :;o  ;  soil  as.  ::i.  lis  inherent  interest,  20;  its 
Coin  law  of  England.  117  lis.  breadth  of  scope.  -j\  •  its  rich- 
Correlative  aim-  of  geography,  01.  ness,  LI  1  ;  comprehensive  treat- 
Cotton  industry  of  Alabama.  31.  nieiit  includes.  22;  a  science, 
Culture  aim  of  geography,  92-03.  L'.;  ;  concerned  with  controls, 
cyeio,  'pin..  i::i.  ;;r,  :  with  nature  study,  41;  its 
i     :      ues,    |I2.  manifoldness,     52;     as     applied 

310 


INDEX  311 

science,   55;  central   position   in  of  corn   ami   wheat  states,    140- 

group    of    sciences,    58  ;    cannot  1  13  ;    on    use    of    pictures,     195- 

ignoro    science,    59-00;     relation  190. 

to    history,    07-78  ;    as    a    prepa-  Life   as   a    response    to   environing 

ration  for  citizenship,    101.  conditions,   24. 

Geographic   materials,    the   test  of,  Loess  soils,   207-269. 
120. 

Geographic    influence    in     history,  Magazines,    use    of    in    geography, 

03-00;    case    of    New    England,  is.J-l'.ll  ;     whv     valuable,     184- 

0«>-i2;   case  of    Ea   hallo,    <_-<8.  1<s- .   illustrative  magazine  arti- 

Geological  survey  maps.  2. ,9  ;  how  c|es      lsj-iss 

to     use     them      241-244;     illus-  Man's' struggle  with  environment, 

trative       exercises:        Boothbay  .,- 

sheet.        241;        LHmaldsouville  Maps,   235-252 ;    characteristics    ^f 

quadrangle.  21.5.  a     ,,0(h1     „,.,„      L>30  ;     kinds    of. 

Geology,    its    relation    to    geogra-  2n7  .    dl.;nvill^    „,.    238  .    c.    s'. 

P».v'   •'•'•          ,,,     ..           ,o^-,,^  <<■     S-.     2:;'.t  ;     bibliography     of. 

Government  publications,  189-190.  .",04-309 

Gradation,    the    process   discussed,  McMurry,'  C.     A.,    geography    the 

131-1. >L.  mother  studv,  55. 

Merriam,    ('.    liart,   quoted,   29. 
Harris,   W.   T.,   on  nature  of  geog-  Meteorology,    its   relation    to  geog- 
raphy,   21;    on    aims   of   geogra-  raphy,   54. 

phy  'teaching.   82-8.">.  Method     in    geography,     a    better, 

Ilelior,     instructions    for    making,  137-143;     basis     of,     138;     Im- 

219;     exercises     with,     221-22.'!.  provement    of,     138  ;    empirical, 

Elistorv,   as   related   to  geography,  139-140;      inductive,      145-153; 

03-78;    117-11!!.  deductive.    155-15:). 

Hubbard,    G.    i>..    quoted    on    goo-  Minneapolis,   how  located,   34. 

graphic'      influence      on      human  Models,      252-2(50  ;      paper      pulp. 

affairs.    6:'..  253;    salt    and    flour,    254-255; 

Human  control   of  geographic  fac-  sand.    250;    plasticine,    250-257; 

tors.   .",1.  chalk  and  pencil.   258-259. 

Human     development     in     tropical  Moisture     adaptations     in     plants, 

regions.    111-112;    in    Arctic   re-  :;o  ;    nomadic    habits    of    people, 

.uions,     112-11:'.;     in     temperate  a  moisture  response,  31. 

regions,    113-114.  Moisture      of      corn      and      wheat 

Human     geography.     95-106;     do-  states,    140-143. 

lined,    '.m;  ;    illustrations    of,    97-  Mountains  as  barriers,  34. 


Illinois   farmer.    119. 


Nature    studv.     teachers'    attitude 
toward.   41-4: 


Observational        geography 


Illinois  river,    i_.  Xew  educational  situation,   18. 

Indiana.   .»_.  Xew     England,     industries     deter 
Induct m^    lesson     in     geography,  milu.d    1)y    physiography,    05-72 

Industrial      excursions,      208-209 

preparation     for.      210;      subse-  "  "cussed  '"3'M0 

quent    us,,   of.    211.  0hi   ',,.' ;Vaphv"'27 

Industrial     history.     110-119;     in  Organic  controls    32. 

New     England.     05-72 ;     of    La  Organization   of 'geographic    mate- 

•ville.    ,1-,,:    of    England,    Hi-  riaN     3  c,«>-  IT  1 

lis;  of    Belgium    119.  ^  Organizing     principle     of     geogra 


phy.   10 
Outline  maps.  2  10. 


Industries,     how     determined,     74- 

7s  ;    1  15  :    how    localized.    115. 
Influence  of  climate  on  people,  29. 
influence,    geographic,    in    history,         i»anamfl    cnnal    as    illustration    of 
''••-O.i.  man's      control      over      environ- 

ment,  35. 
Passive   work  by   pupils.   174. 
1 '.  da  .'•::  v     ,  if     geography,     bibli<  ig- 

raphy.'  291-3o}, 
I'hases    of    nongraphic    study.    38- 
5ii.      i  bservat  iona !.     39  ;      repro- 
siuita  t  ive.     12  :    il. 'script  ive.     t  t  ; 
:■■:  ■ :  inal .    10 :   social,    is. 
I'hvsies,  its  relation  to  geography, 

e  t. 

IMiysi  igra  pli  :       ;  •:  --■■  -.     1  27-132, 


.Yohiison, 

Willis     E..     quoted 

on 

school 

cabinets,  207. 

Kentuck' 

r.  24. 

Km  w  led 
portan 

I. a    Saile 

ire      of     environment 
,    eil  v    of.    7-".. 

i  Hi- 

Less,.n. 

inductive.      1  19-153  : 

de- 

duet  iv 

.,     155-159;     on     moist 

lire 

'312  INDEX 

Pictures,    value,    192-195;    how   to  270-271;    illustrative    exercises, 

use,      195  ;     stereographs,     199  ;  271-272. 

storeopticon,    200.  Spencer,    Herbert,    quoted   on   life, 

Place    adjustment    in    geography,  114. 

87-89.  Starved  Rock,  74;  75;  77. 

Plant  life,  the  distribution  of,  29.  Statistics,   graphic   representation, 

Plateau,   as  a   control,  33.  248-250. 

Platteville,   Wisconsin,  70.  St.   Paul,   how  located,   150-151. 
Portland     cement     works     of     La 

Salle,    75.  Teacher's,     opportunity     in     geog- 

Principles,   value  of,   132.  raphy,      121-122;       .reparation, 

Problem,    The.    value    of    in    teach-  125-1.".5;   knowledge,   127-135. 

ing,  140;  solution  of  type,  140-  Temperature    controls,    29. 

14.'5.  Temperature,    influence    Of.    range 

Rain    gauge.    221.  of,   111. 

Rainfall,  232;  as  a  control.  30.  Tendency,    modern    education,    17. 

Rational     element     of     geography,  Text   hooks,    use   (,f.    172-1M  ;   had 

107-168.  use    of.     17.".;    what    constitutes 

Rational    geography.    40-48.  good    use    of,    174-175;    illustra- 

Re-creation  of  environment.  28.  tion      of     good     use,      177-178; 

Regional    geography.    100-104;   ad-  summary,    181. 

vantages   of,   1  (;;!-! 04.  Topographic  controls,  33. 
Relations    of   animals   and    plants, 

nn.  Unit  of  geography  study,   100. 

Relation,     of     geography     to     sci-  Use    of    hooks    in    the    recitation, 

ences.     52-01;     125-120  ;     shown  180. 

by    diagram,    57  ;    of    geography  *.se  of  maps  and  models.  235-200. 

to    history.    03-78.                            *  Use  of   text  hooks,   172-181. 
Representative    geography,    42-44. 

Response  defined,   35,  Value,    of     magazine     articles     in 

Hocks,    sedimentary,    202;    result-  teaching     geography,      183-191; 

ing   soils.    203-20  1.  of     pictures     in     teaching    geog- 

Russell,  1.  C,  reference  to,  2:).  raphy.    102-200. 

Value  of  observational  geography, 

Salisbury,  p.  I).,  quoted  on  use  of  40- 

text,    170.  Vulcanism    discussed,    130-131. 

School  atlas,  how  to  use.  244-240.  Wallace,     Alfred    Russell,    quoted, 

School      museum,      202-208;      how  34. 

make,     204  ;     suggestive     mate-  Washington,  rainfall    in     30 

rials.    205-200;    value    of,    207;  Weather  record    "3" 

Johnson  quoted  on,  207.  Weather  study,  217-233'  su- 
Sky  state  of,  231.  jested  helps.'  217-21N-  anpara- 
fcoclal  control  over  environment,  tits  suggested.  210-220  ;  illus 
c,  ".  ■,  ,  .  trative  exercises  on  atmospheric 
Bocia  geography.  100-100  pressure,  22:;:  on  convection 
Social  phase  of  geography,  20;  currents,  223-225;  on  cyclonic 
<■•  '.,•''•  storms.  227-228  ;  on  heal  en- 
Sod,    as    a    control,    31;    201-272-  ergy    -30 

?n^tll0fl"!:k%;U;    °f    ^(;W  ™b«'ck,    ,{.    n„    quoted   on   aims 

J-.nglan_d,      08  ;      of      corn     belt,  in   geography,    83. 

200-20,  ;     of    Mississippi    delta,  Wind  direction's  near  lows.  22" 

-,  r  '•'■.          ,    .          .  Wind,    effects    on    vegetation,    32; 

sons,    knowledge   of.    necessary    to  winds   on   plateaus    :;i 

t«;acher,      201;      alluvial,      204;  Wind  velocities,  231 

glacial    drift.    2*;.-,;    j(less,    207;  Winds,  westerlies,   141. 

lava,  200;  (lements  of  fertility  r,-                      ~,.                      x>  d  u 

i'mui},  Zinc   mines,    1 0.                    K.r.ri. 


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